title: Metal exposure and reproductive disorders in indigenous communities living along the Pilcomayo River, Bolivia.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The Pilcomayo River is polluted by tailings and effluents from upstream mining activities, which contain high levels of metals. The Weenhayek live along this river and are likely to have elevated exposure.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To assess whether the Weenhayek have increased risk of reproductive and developmental disorders related to elevated metal exposure in comparison with a reference population.
  
  
  METHODS
  We assessed reproductive and developmental outcomes, i.e. fertility, fetal loss, congenital anomalies, and walking onset by means of structured interviews. We sampled hair, water and fish to assess the relative exposure of the Weenhayek. Samples were analyzed for Pb and Cd with ICP-MS techniques.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The Weenhayek communities studied had a higher prevalence of small families (OR 2.7, 95% CI 1.3-6.0) and delayed walking onset (OR 2.7, 95% CI 1.4-5.1) than the reference population. Median Pb levels in Weenhayek hair were 2-5 times higher than in the reference population, while Cd levels were not elevated. In water and fish, both Pb and Cd levels were increased in the Weenhayek area.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We found indications for increased risks of small families and delayed walking onset among the Weenhayek living along the Pilcomayo River. Lactants form a high risk group for lead exposure.
authors.affiliation: Department of Environmental Science, Institute for Water and Wetland Research, Radboud University Nijmegen, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands. m.stassen@science.ru.nl
authors.forename: Marinke J M
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Stassen
authors.forename: N Louise
authors.initials: NL
authors.lastname: Preeker
authors.forename: Ad M J
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Ragas
authors.forename: Max W P M
authors.initials: MW
authors.lastname: van de Ven
authors.forename: Alfons J P
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Smolders
authors.forename: Nel
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Roeleveld
mesh_terms: D000014:Abnormalities, Drug-Induced / Q000208:ethnology*; D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000818:Animals; D001838:Bolivia / Q000453:epidemiology; D002104:Cadmium / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D002397:Catfishes / Q000502:physiology; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D062665:Epidemiological Monitoring; D005260:Female; D005298:Fertility / Q000187:drug effects; D046689:Fetal Mortality / Q000208:ethnology; D005506:Food Contamination / Q000032:analysis; D006197:Hair / Q000737:chemistry; D006801:Humans; D007199:Indians, South American; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007854:Lead / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D008297:Male; D013058:Mass Spectrometry; D008875:Middle Aged; D019957:Motor Skills Disorders / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000208:ethnology*; D045483:Rivers / Q000737:chemistry; D016138:Walking; D014873:Water Pollutants / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D014873:Water Pollutants; D002104:Cadmium; D007854:Lead