title: Subtype- and antigenic site-specific differences in biophysical influences on evolution of influenza virus hemagglutinin.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Influenza virus undergoes rapid evolution by both antigenic shift and antigenic drift. Antibodies, particularly those binding near the receptor-binding site of hemagglutinin (HA) or the neuraminidase (NA) active site, are thought to be the primary defense against influenza infection, and mutations in antibody binding sites can reduce or eliminate antibody binding. The binding of antibodies to their cognate antigens is governed by such biophysical properties of the interacting surfaces as shape, non-polar and polar surface area, and charge.
  
  
  METHODS
  To understand forces shaping evolution of influenza virus, we have examined HA sequences of human influenza A and B viruses, assigning each amino acid values reflecting total accessible surface area, non-polar and polar surface area, and net charge due to the side chain. Changes in each of these values between neighboring sequences were calculated for each residue and mapped onto the crystal structures.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Areas of HA showing the highest frequency of pairwise changes agreed well with previously identified antigenic sites in H3 and H1 HAs, and allowed us to propose more detailed antigenic maps and novel antigenic sites for H1 and influenza B HA. Changes in biophysical properties differed between HAs of different subtypes, and between different antigenic sites of the same HA. For H1, statistically significant differences in several biophysical quantities compared to residues lying outside antigenic sites were seen for some antigenic sites but not others. Influenza B antigenic sites all show statistically significant differences in biophysical quantities for all antigenic sites, whereas no statistically significant differences in biophysical quantities were seen for any antigenic site is seen for H3. In many cases, residues previously shown to be under positive selection at the genetic level also undergo rapid change in biophysical properties.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The biophysical consequences of amino acid changes introduced by antigenic drift vary from subtype to subtype, and between different antigenic sites. This suggests that the significance of antibody binding in selecting new variants may also be variable for different antigenic sites and influenza subtypes.
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, 2500 N State St, Jackson, MS 39216, USA. sstray@umc.edu
authors.forename: Stephen J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Stray
authors.forename: Lindsey B
authors.initials: LB
authors.lastname: Pittman
mesh_terms: D000914:Antibodies, Viral / Q000276:immunology*; D000956:Antigens, Viral / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000235:genetics / Q000276:immunology*; D055592:Biophysical Phenomena; D019295:Computational Biology; D019143:Evolution, Molecular; D019267:Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000235:genetics / Q000276:immunology*; D006801:Humans; D009980:Influenza A virus / Q000737:chemistry / Q000235:genetics / Q000276:immunology; D009981:Influenza B virus / Q000737:chemistry / Q000235:genetics / Q000276:immunology; D020125:Mutation, Missense; D011485:Protein Binding; D055672:Static Electricity
chemical_list: D000914:Antibodies, Viral; D000956:Antigens, Viral; D019267:Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus