title: The chills as a psychological construct: content universe, factor structure, affective composition, elicitors, trait antecedents, and consequences.
abstract: We examined the content universe, factor structure, affective composition, elicitors, trait antecedents, and consequences of "the chills." In Study 1, participants described what it means to get the chills. A second sample sorted all references to physical sensations based on similarity. Cluster analysis identified 4 lower order clusters (goosebumps, tingling, coldness, shivers) and 2 higher order clusters ("goosetingles," "coldshivers"). In Study 2, factor analysis of questionnaire data supported a model with lower and higher order factors that corresponded to the Study 1 clusters. Goosetingles and coldshivers were predicted by approach-related traits (e.g., extraversion) and avoidance-related traits (e.g., neuroticism), respectively. In Study 3, analysis of narrative data replicated the goosetingles-coldshivers structure. Relative to coldshivers, goosetingles involved greater awe, surprise, and enjoyment and less disgust, fear, and sadness. In Study 4, analysis of diary data extended the goosetingles-coldshivers structure to between- and within-person levels of analysis. Goosetingles involved positive affects and was elicited by approach-related stimuli, whereas coldshivers involved negative affects and was elicited by avoidance-related stimuli. In Study 5, manipulation of exposure to self-actualization and self-annihilation elicited goosetingles and coldshivers, respectively. Goosetingles and coldshivers had positive and negative effects, respectively, on interpersonal closeness. In sum, diverse forms of evidence converge to indicate that the chills encompasses distinct approach- and avoidance-related constructs. Failure to distinguish these constructs explains null and inconsistent findings in the nascent literature. Goosetingles and coldshivers are posited to serve the function of signaling that an event in the environment is pertinent to one's most deep-seated hopes or fears.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA 23187-8795, USA. maruskin@stanford.edu
authors.forename: Laura A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Maruskin
authors.forename: Todd M
authors.initials: TM
authors.lastname: Thrash
authors.forename: Andrew J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Elliot
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000339:Affect; D023341:Chills / Q000523:psychology*; D016000:Cluster Analysis; D004644:Emotions; D005163:Factor Analysis, Statistical; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009042:Motivation; D010551:Personality; D013334:Students / Q000523:psychology; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D055815:Young Adult