title: A reappraisal of adult thoracic surface anatomy.
abstract: Accurate surface anatomy is essential for safe clinical practice. Numerous inconsistencies in clinically important surface markings exist between and within anatomical reference texts. The aim of this study was to investigate key thoracic surface anatomical landmarks in vivo using computed tomographic (CT) imaging. High-resolution thoracic CT scans from 153 supine adults (mean age 63, range 19-89 years; 53% female) taken at end tidal inspiration were analyzed by dual consensus reporting to determine the surface anatomy of the sternal angle, central veins, heart, lungs, and diaphragm. Patients with kyphosis/scoliosis, distorting space-occupying lesions, or visceromegaly were excluded. The position of the cardiac apex, formation of the brachiocephalic veins, and vertebral levels of the sternal angle, xiphisternal joint, and aortic hiatus were consistent with commonly accepted surface markings although there was a wide range of normal variation. In contrast, common surface markings were markedly inaccurate for the following: the position of the tracheal bifurcation, aortic arch, and azygos vein termination (below the plane of the sternal angle at T5-T6 vertebral level in most individuals); the superior vena cava/right atrial junction (most often behind the fourth costal cartilage); the lower border of the lung (adjacent to T12 vertebra posteriorly); and the level at which the inferior vena cava and esophagus traverse the diaphragm (T11 in most). Surface anatomy must be reappraised using modern imaging in vivo if it is to be evidence based and fit for purpose. The effects of gender, age, posture, respiration, build, and ethnicity also deserve greater emphasis.
authors.affiliation: Department of Anatomy, Otago School of Medical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
authors.forename: S Ali
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Mirjalili
authors.forename: Samuel J M
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Hale
authors.forename: Tim
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Buckenham
authors.forename: Ben
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Wilson
authors.forename: Mark D
authors.initials: MD
authors.lastname: Stringer
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D000715:Anatomy / Q000193:education* / Q000592:standards; D004501:Education, Medical; D019317:Evidence-Based Medicine; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D013902:Radiography, Thoracic / Q000379:methods / Q000592:standards; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D013782:Textbooks as Topic; D013909:Thorax / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D014057:Tomography, X-Ray Computed / Q000379:methods; D055815:Young Adult