title: Low-cost ultra-wide genotyping using Roche/454 pyrosequencing for surveillance of HIV drug resistance.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Great efforts have been made to increase accessibility of HIV antiretroviral therapy (ART) in low and middle-income countries. The threat of wide-scale emergence of drug resistance could severely hamper ART scale-up efforts. Population-based surveillance of transmitted HIV drug resistance ensures the use of appropriate first-line regimens to maximize efficacy of ART programs where drug options are limited. However, traditional HIV genotyping is extremely expensive, providing a cost barrier to wide-scale and frequent HIV drug resistance surveillance.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We have developed a low-cost laboratory-scale next-generation sequencing-based genotyping method to monitor drug resistance. We designed primers specifically to amplify protease and reverse transcriptase from Brazilian HIV subtypes and developed a multiplexing scheme using multiplex identifier tags to minimize cost while providing more robust data than traditional genotyping techniques. Using this approach, we characterized drug resistance from plasma in 81 HIV infected individuals collected in São Paulo, Brazil. We describe the complexities of analyzing next-generation sequencing data and present a simplified open-source workflow to analyze drug resistance data. From this data, we identified drug resistance mutations in 20% of treatment naïve individuals in our cohort, which is similar to frequencies identified using traditional genotyping in Brazilian patient samples.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The developed ultra-wide sequencing approach described here allows multiplexing of at least 48 patient samples per sequencing run, 4 times more than the current genotyping method. This method is also 4-fold more sensitive (5% minimal detection frequency vs. 20%) at a cost 3-5× less than the traditional Sanger-based genotyping method. Lastly, by using a benchtop next-generation sequencer (Roche/454 GS Junior), this approach can be more easily implemented in low-resource settings. This data provides proof-of-concept that next-generation HIV drug resistance genotyping is a feasible and low-cost alternative to current genotyping methods and may be particularly beneficial for in-country surveillance of transmitted drug resistance.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America.
authors.forename: Dawn M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Dudley
authors.forename: Emily N
authors.initials: EN
authors.lastname: Chin
authors.forename: Benjamin N
authors.initials: BN
authors.lastname: Bimber
authors.forename: Sabri S
authors.initials: SS
authors.lastname: Sanabani
authors.forename: Leandro F
authors.initials: LF
authors.lastname: Tarosso
authors.forename: Priscilla R
authors.initials: PR
authors.lastname: Costa
authors.forename: Mariana M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Sauer
authors.forename: Esper G
authors.initials: EG
authors.lastname: Kallas
authors.forename: David H
authors.initials: DH
authors.lastname: O'Connor
mesh_terms: D024882:Drug Resistance, Viral / Q000235:genetics*; D005240:Feasibility Studies; D060005:Genotyping Techniques / Q000191:economics*; D006678:HIV / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000235:genetics*; D006801:Humans; D009154:Mutation; D016133:Polymerase Chain Reaction; D012367:RNA, Viral / Q000097:blood / Q000235:genetics; D017423:Sequence Analysis, RNA / Q000191:economics*
chemical_list: D012367:RNA, Viral