title: Microparticles, not only markers but also a therapeutic target in the early stage of diabetic retinopathy and vascular aging.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Microparticles (MPs) are small vesicles between 100 and 500 nm, released from different cells including blood, endothelium, smooth muscle, and retina cells. MPs are produced during shedding process in response to some stressing and stimulating factors, as well as during apoptosis. The cellular machinery leading to MP shedding involves the loss of the plasma membrane asymmetry and phosphatidylserine externalization with an increase in cytosolic calcium concentrations. MPs not only transfer membrane proteins from the cells of their origin but also convey phospholipids and microRNA to the distant cells. Some of these macromolecules have neoangiogenetic properties (factor XII, tissue factor or mitogen-activated protein kinases) or participate in modulation of vascular senescence or remodeling (miRNAs).
  
  
  METHODS
  The authors summarise recent knowledge about MP biology and pathophysiology. The mechanisms involved in MP release are discussed, and special emphasis is placed on clinical studies, which document their proangiogenic role in diabetic retinopathy and vascular aging.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The pharmacological control of phospholipid moieties in the plasma membrane and the regulation of the MP shedding remains a challenge in the early stage of diabetic retinopathy and vascular aging.
authors.affiliation: Jagiellonian University Medical College, Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Kopernika 15A, 31-501 Krakow, Poland . estepien@cm-uj.krakow.pl
authors.forename: Ewa
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Stępień
authors.forename: Anna
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Kabłak-Ziembicka
authors.forename: Jarosław
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Czyż
authors.forename: Tadeusz
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Przewłocki
authors.forename: Maciej
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Małecki
mesh_terms: D000375:Aging / Q000502:physiology; D000818:Animals; D055252:Cell-Derived Microparticles / Q000502:physiology*; D003930:Diabetic Retinopathy / Q000473:pathology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D004730:Endothelium, Vascular / Q000473:pathology* / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans