Maternal smoking during pregnancy and self-reported delinquency by offspring.
BACKGROUND
Several studies have reported significant positive correlations between smoking during pregnancy by mothers and the involvement of their offspring in criminal/delinquent behaviour later in life, but these findings have been described as modest and the criminality based on official conviction statistics.


OBJECTIVE
We sought to verify this relationship and probe for more details on the basis of self-reported offending among college students.


METHODS
Independently completed questionnaires were collected from 6332 students and their mothers. The students provided information about their delinquent acts, if any, according to eight categories. Their mothers provided retrospective reports of their smoking habits, if any, during pregnancy.


RESULTS
Mothers who recalled having smoked during pregnancy were significantly more likely than non-smoking mothers to have offspring who self-reported engaging in some types of delinquency. This relationship was more evident for female offspring than for male offspring and was most pronounced for illegal drug use by the offspring. There was, however, no relationship between offspring offending and estimated number of cigarettes smoked by mothers, month of pregnancy when smoked or consistency of smoking throughout pregnancy.


CONCLUSIONS
Overall, our study confirms that maternal smoking during pregnancy is associated with offspring involvement in delinquency, but the lack of critical timing or dose-response relationships between maternal smoking and later offspring delinquency cast doubt on the possibility that the associations are due to teratogenic effects of tobacco smoke.
University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. lee.ellis@hotmail.com
Lee
L
Ellis
Alan
A
Widmayer
Shyamal
S
Das
D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D003415:Crime / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007604:Juvenile Delinquency / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D008297:Male; D009035:Mothers; D011247:Pregnancy; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects / Q000523:psychology*; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D057566:Self Report; D012907:Smoking / Q000523:psychology*; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires