title: [Skull cult. Trophy heads and tzantzas in pre-Columbian America].
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The skull cult is a cultural tradition that dates back to at least Neolithic times. Its main manifestations are trophy heads, skull masks, moulded skulls and shrunken heads. The article reviews the skull cult in both pre-Columbian America and the ethnographic present from a neuro-anthropological perspective.
  
  
  METHODS
  The tradition of shaping and painting the skulls of ancestors goes back to the Indo-European Neolithic period (Natufian culture and Gobekli Tepe). In Mesoamerica, post-mortem decapitation was the first step of a mortuary treatment that resulted in a trophy head, a skull for the tzompantli or a skull mask. The lithic technology utilised by the Mesoamerican cultures meant that disarticulation had to be performed in several stages. Tzompantli is a term that refers both to a construction where the heads of victims were kept and to the actual skulls themselves. Skull masks are skulls that have been artificially modified in order to separate and decorate the facial part; they have been found in the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan. The existence of trophy heads is well documented by means of iconographic representations on ceramic ware and textiles belonging to the Paraca, Nazca and Huari cultures of Peru. The Mundurucu Indians of Brazil and the Shuar or Jivaroan peoples of Amazonian Ecuador have maintained this custom down to the present day. The Shuar also shrink heads (tzantzas) in a ritual process. Spanish chroniclers such as Fray Toribio de Benavente 'Motolinia' and Gaspar de Carvajal spoke of these practices.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In pre-Columbian America, the tradition of decapitating warriors in order to obtain trophy heads was a wide-spread and highly developed practice.
authors: Hospital Virgen de la Luz, Cuenca, Espana. fjcarod-artal@hotmail.com
authors: F J
authors: FJ
authors: Carod-Artal
mesh_terms: D000884:Anthropology, Cultural; D001154:Art / Q000266:history; D002489:Central America; D002562:Ceremonial Behavior; D049248:Decapitation / Q000208:ethnology / Q000266:history*; D005655:Funeral Rites / Q000266:history; D006257:Head; D049668:History, 15th Century; D049669:History, 16th Century; D049674:History, 21st Century; D049690:History, Ancient; D006801:Humans; D007197:Indians, Central American / Q000266:history*; D007199:Indians, South American / Q000266:history*; D008273:Magic / Q000266:history / Q000523:psychology; D008334:Mandible; D008397:Masks / Q000266:history; D011309:Preservation, Biological / Q000379:methods; D012886:Skull; D013020:South America; D014857:Warfare