title: Opium could be considered an independent risk factor for lung cancer: a case-control study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide, and half of all incident lung cancers are believed to occur in the developing countries, including Iran.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  We investigated the association of opium with the risk of lung cancer in a case-control study.
  
  
  METHODS
  We enrolled 242 cases and 484 matched controls in this study. A questionnaire was developed, containing questions on basic demographic characteristics, as well as lifelong history of smoking cigarettes, exposure to passive smoking, opium use and alcohol consumption. For smoking cigarettes and opium and also oral opium intake frequency, duration and cumulative use were categorized into three groups: no use, low use and high use. Conditional logistic regression was used to calculate the odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Multivariate analysis in men showed that after adjusting for the effect of ethnicity, education and pack years of smoking cigarettes, smoking opium remained as a significant independent risk factor with an OR of 3.1 (95% CI 1.2-8.1). In addition, concomitant heavy smoking of cigarettes and opium dramatically increased the risk of lung cancer to an OR of 35.0 (95% CI 11.4-107.9).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study demonstrated that smoking opium is associated with a high risk of lung cancer as an independent risk factor.
authors: Clinical Tuberculosis Epidemiology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
authors: Mohammad Reza
authors: MR
authors: Masjedi
authors: Parisa Adimi
authors: PA
authors: Naghan
authors: Shervin
authors: S
authors: Taslimi
authors: Mahmoud
authors: M
authors: Yousefifard
authors: Seyyed Meisam
authors: SM
authors: Ebrahimi
authors: Adnan
authors: A
authors: Khosravi
authors: Shirin
authors: S
authors: Karimi
authors: Mostafa
authors: M
authors: Hosseini
authors: Esmaeil
authors: E
authors: Mortaz
mesh_terms: D016022:Case-Control Studies; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007492:Iran; D008175:Lung Neoplasms / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000453:epidemiology; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D015999:Multivariate Analysis; D009294:Narcotics / Q000009:adverse effects*; D009293:Opioid-Related Disorders / Q000150:complications* / Q000453:epidemiology; D009892:Opium / Q000009:adverse effects*; D012307:Risk Factors; D012737:Sex Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects*; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013997:Time Factors
chemical_list: D009294:Narcotics; D009892:Opium