title: Strategies for the return of behavioral surgery.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Behavioral surgery (BS) is resurging because of unmet clinical need, advances in basic sciences, neuroimaging, neurostimulation, and stereotaxy. However, there is a danger that BS will fall unless acceptable strategies are adopted by BS providers.
  
  
  METHODS
  A critical review of conditions leading to rise of psychosurgery (PS) and concerns resulting in its fall was conducted to learn lessons and safeguard BS of the future.
  
  
  RESULTS
  PS rose and spread in 1960 like wildfire without adequate preclinical and clinical studies. Hundreds of patients had PS without adequate preoperative diagnosis or assessment, proper consent, and non-objective reporting of outcome. Furthermore, there was public opposition against PS because of its potential abuse to control violent behavior and dissidents. Advances in neurostimulation, neuroimaging, and stereotaxy, and emergence of treatment-resistant mental disorders led to increased interest in BS. Several recent studies have shown BS to be safe and effective. However, concerns related to strength of evidence, safety, efficacy, consent, and objectivity of studies have been raised. Unless clinical and regulatory governance structures are adopted in each jurisdiction, BS will face the same fate as that of PS in the past.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  THE FUTURE OF BS AS A SAFE AND EFFECTIVE THERAPY IS DEPENDENT UPON ADOPTING CLEAR MORAL ETHICAL AND GOVERNANCE STANDARDS ON THE FOLLOWING LINES: Patients must have failed adequate therapies; must be assessed by psychiatrist-led multidisciplinary teams; patients' abilities to give consent and diagnosis must be verified by independent authorities designated for this purpose by the state; and the independent authority must also decide whether the teams were adequately trained to perform BS.
authors: Centre of Neurosciences, Department of Neurosurgery, Consultant Neurological Surgeon, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, Scotland, U K.
authors: Sam
authors: S
authors: Eljamel