title: Antinociceptive effects after oral administration of tramadol hydrochloride in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis).
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To evaluate antinociceptive effects on thermal thresholds after oral administration of tramadol hydrochloride to Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis). Animals-15 healthy adult Hispaniolan Amazon parrots.
  
  
  METHODS
  2 crossover experiments were conducted. In the first experiment, 15 parrots received 3 treatments (tramadol at 2 doses [10 and 20 mg/kg] and a control suspension) administered orally. In the second experiment, 11 parrots received 2 treatments (tramadol hydrochloride [30 mg/kg] and a control suspension) administered orally. Baseline thermal foot withdrawal threshold was measured 1 hour before drug or control suspension administration; thermal foot withdrawal threshold was measured after administration at 0.5, 1.5, 3, and 6 hours (both experiments) and also at 9 hours (second experiment only).
  
  
  RESULTS
  For the first experiment, there were no overall effects of treatment, hour, period, or any interactions. For the second experiment, there was an overall effect of treatment, with a significant difference between tramadol hydrochloride and control suspension (mean change from baseline, 2.00° and -0.09°C, respectively). There also was a significant change from baseline for tramadol hydrochloride at 0.5, 1.5, and 6 hours after administration but not at 3 or 9 hours after administration.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Tramadol at a dose of 30 mg/kg, PO, induced thermal antinociception in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots. This dose was necessary for induction of significant and sustained analgesic effects, with duration of action up to 6 hours. Further studies with other types of noxious stimulation, dosages, and intervals are needed to fully evaluate the analgesic effects of tramadol hydrochloride in psittacines.
authors: Department of Veterinary Medicine and Epidemiology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA. guzman@ucdavis.edu
authors: David
authors: D
authors: Sanchez-Migallon Guzman
authors: Marcy J
authors: MJ
authors: Souza
authors: Jana M
authors: JM
authors: Braun
authors: Sherry K
authors: SK
authors: Cox
authors: Nicholas S
authors: NS
authors: Keuler
authors: Joanne R
authors: JR
authors: Paul-Murphy
mesh_terms: D000284:Administration, Oral; D046708:Amazona / Q000502:physiology*; D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D000818:Animals; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D005260:Female; D006358:Hot Temperature / Q000009:adverse effects; D008297:Male; D059225:Nociception / Q000187:drug effects*; D014147:Tramadol / Q000627:therapeutic use*
chemical_list: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid; D014147:Tramadol