title: Ontogeny tends to recapitulate phylogeny in digital organisms.
abstract: Biologists have long debated whether ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny and, if so, why. Two plausible explanations are that (i) changes to early developmental stages are selected against because they tend to disrupt later development and (ii) simpler structures often precede more complex ones in both ontogeny and phylogeny if the former serve as building blocks for the latter. It is difficult to test these hypotheses experimentally in natural systems, so we used a computational system that exhibits evolutionary dynamics. We observed that ontogeny does indeed recapitulate phylogeny; traits that arose earlier in a lineage's history also tended to be expressed earlier in the development of individuals. The relative complexity of traits contributed substantially to this correlation, but a significant tendency toward recapitulation remained even after accounting for trait complexity. This additional effect provides evidence that selection against developmental disruption also contributed to the conservation of early stages in development.
authors.affiliation: Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA. jeffclune@cornell.edu
authors.forename: Jeff
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Clune
authors.forename: Robert T
authors.initials: RT
authors.lastname: Pennock
authors.forename: Charles
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Ofria
authors.forename: Richard E
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: Lenski
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005075:Biological Evolution; D003198:Computer Simulation; D047108:Embryonic Development; D008957:Models, Genetic