title: Revisiting the anatomy and biomechanics of the anconeus muscle and its role in elbow stability.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Recent studies have designated the anconeus muscle as an option for use as a pedicled flap for covering soft tissue defects about the elbow, with reported minimal risk of morbidity. This has raised the question as to the importance of the anconeus muscle and as to whether this is truly an accessory muscle that can be sacrificed, or whether the anconeus muscle significantly contributes to elbow and forearm stability? This study revisits the anatomy and biomechanics of the anconeus muscle and aims to investigate the neuromuscular compartments of the anconeus muscle and to determine the changes in the muscle length, fibre length and moment arm over a range of elbow flexion angles for each compartment.
  
  
  METHODS
  An anatomical study on 8 human cadavers (51-77 years of age) was done and a 2-dimensional kinematic elbow model developed to determine changes in the muscle length and moment arm of the muscle related to changes in elbow flexion angles.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The muscle was modelled with two possible lines of action, one along the posterior and another on the anterior edge of the muscle as they had different muscle fibre lengths (posterior: average of 32 mm, anterior: average of 20 mm). The anterior edge also had an aponeurosis which was 70% of its length. From 0 to 120° elbow flexion, the length of the posterior and anterior edges increased with a maximum change recorded at 90° elbow flexion (31.7±1.0 mm and 65.3±1.4 mm, respectively). The moment arm is 14-mm at 0° flexion, but between the posterior and anterior edges it decreases at different rates with increasing elbow flexion angle. Beyond 80°, the anterior edge behaves as an elbow flexor, while the posterior edge remains an elbow extensor. The study demonstrates that the anconeus muscle has two neuromuscular compartments each with distinct intramuscular innervations and muscle fibre lengths.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The posterior and deep aspect of the muscle functions as an elbow extensor decreasing in influence with increasing elbow flexion angle. The anterior superficial aspect which is adjacent and parallel to the lateral collateral ligaments, would most likely work in unison to provide constraint to the posterolateral stability of the elbow.
authors.affiliation: Musculoskeletal Research Laboratories, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore. Electronic address: dosbarry@nus.edu.sg.
authors.forename: Barry P
authors.initials: BP
authors.lastname: Pereira
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D002102:Cadaver; D004550:Elbow / Q000294:innervation / Q000502:physiology*; D004551:Elbow Joint / Q000294:innervation / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006811:Humerus / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000502:physiology; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D008953:Models, Anatomic; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000294:innervation / Q000502:physiology*; D016059:Range of Motion, Articular; D013710:Tendons / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000502:physiology; D014457:Ulna / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000502:physiology