(68)Ga-radiopharmaceuticals for PET imaging of infection and inflammation.
Infection imaging has been challenging over the past four decades, which provided an excellent playing field for researchers working in this area, and till date the quest continues to find an ideal imaging agent. Labelled leukocytes were first developed in the 1970s for imaging infection lesions such as osteomyelitis, cellulitis, diabetic foot, Crohn's disease, inflammatory bowel disease, fever of unknown origin, etc.  Subsequently labelled antibiotics such as (99m)Tc-labelled ciprofloxacin have emerged for directly identifying live bacterial infections. From the early 1970s through the mid-1980s,( 67)Ga-Citrate was the prime radionuclide for imaging of inflammation and infection of musculoskeletal origin. Although (68)Ga-PET was described in 1960s for tumour imaging, recent reports described (68)Ga-Citrate and (68)Ga-transferrin as possible agents for PET-imaging of infection due to successful application of (67)Ga-Citrate SPECT in the past, despite its limitations. It is important to establish a faster imaging method for (68)Ga, as its half-life is 68 min compared to 78.3 hrs for (67)Ga. Preparation of (68)Ga-Citrate and (68)Ga-transferrin is described, with very high yield and high radiochemical purity (RCP), which is ideally suited for routine clinical studies. Biodistribution of (68)Ga-Citrate-PET images were characterised with high blood pool, high liver and bone (growth plate) uptake with low soft-tissue activity. (68)Ga-Citrate or (68)Ga-transferrin was able to detect infected lesions in rats within 5-10 min post injection but a focal intense uptake at the lesion (SUV(max)) was visualized only at 30 min, which increased for up to 6 hrs post injection with concomitant decrease in the cardiac blood pool activity. The liver and bowel activity decreased after 90 min then stabilised. In the patient studies, infection lesions were detected within 30 min post injection of (68)Ga-Citrate. Cardiac blood pool and liver activities decreased during the period of study. Interestingly, there was persistent high vascular activity in the thigh region. One of the major limitations of (67)Ga-Citrate SPECT is the delayed post injection waiting time of 48 hrs, in contrast to 60 min post injection waiting with (68)Ga-Citrate. The distinct difference in imaging time is intriguing, although there is no chemical difference between (67)Ga-Citrate and (68)Ga-Citrate, except for the radiolabel. No literature is available on early imaging times using (67)Ga-SPECT. When compared (68)Ga/(67)Ga-Citrate images at 60 min post injection in normal rats, (68)Ga-PET showed better images with low background activity than (67)Ga-SPECT agent. This may be due to short half-life of (68)Ga (68 min), as it would have decayed one half-life at 60 min post-imaging time, compared to the SPECT agent ((67)Ga), which would require 76 hrs to undergo one half-life. Therefore, the visual difference in background can be attributed to the difference in the half-lives of these two agents. Similarly, uptake of (68)Ga by liver, cardiac blood pool activity is much lower than (67)Ga at 60 min post injection period, may be attributed to the faster decay of (68)Ga than (67)Ga.  High background activity of (68)Ga-Citrate in the thorax and upper abdomen at 60 min post-injection may interfere with detecting lesions in these regions; therefore, (68)Ga-PET is more suitable for imaging lesions in the lower abdomen and the extremities. The short half-life of (68)Ga (68 min) may be advantageous from low dosimetry to the patients, but disadvantageous for longer periods of study. Since (68)Ga-Citrate was capable of detecting infection within 60 min, the need for imaging for longer periods may not be warranted. The functional imaging was not limited to diagnosing infection but it could be extended to surgical planning and antibiotic therapy monitoring of osteomyelitis and in distinguishing prosthetic infection from loosening of prosthesis. (18)F-FDG is sensitive but has the limitation of giving false positive results in patients with bone prosthesis, even if there is no infection or mobilisation. But the available literature clearly indicated (68)Ga-Citrate was positive only in cases of infection. In summary, preliminary reports suggest (68)Ga-Citrate PET/CT is useful in the diagnosis of suspected bone infections with reliable sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value and overall accuracy. Preliminary reports with (68)Ga-Transferrin showed it is capable of detecting both Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus (Staph A) and Gram-negative Proteus mirobilis. This is an incidental finding but gives an insight into the potential of this agent to detect more than one bacterial infection.
Department of Nuclear Medicine, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Westmead, Australia. Vijay.Kumar@swahs.health.nsw.gov.au
Vijay
V
Kumar
Dilip K
DK
Boddeti
D000818:Animals; D005710:Gallium Radioisotopes; D006801:Humans; D007239:Infections / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D007249:Inflammation / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D049268:Positron-Emission Tomography / Q000379:methods*; D019275:Radiopharmaceuticals / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D051381:Rats; D014018:Tissue Distribution; D015899:Tomography, Emission-Computed, Single-Photon
D005710:Gallium Radioisotopes; D019275:Radiopharmaceuticals