title: Perioperative stroke risk in nonvascular surgery.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Perioperative stroke is an ischemic or hemorrhagic cerebrovascular accident that can arise intraoperatively or from 3 to 30 days after surgery. This relatively rare complication deserves attention because of its high mortality and serious disability, the latter of which can lead to prolonged hospital stay as well as discharge to long-term care facilities. The aim of this article was to review the literature on perioperative stroke in general surgery, excluding carotid and cardiac surgeries because these have already been thoroughly investigated in previous papers.
  
  
  METHODS
  A search strategy was designed to identify all relevant studies on perioperative stroke in the English language. This search was restricted to papers published up to December 5, 2011. Studies were initially identified from the Medline/PubMed database, EMBASE and the Cochrane Database using the search terms 'surgery', 'perioperative stroke', 'risk factors', 'anticoagulation treatment' and 'antiplatelet treatment'.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The incidence of perioperative stroke among patients who undergo nonvascular surgery is reported to be about 0.08-0.7%. This depends on the type and complexity of the surgical procedure along with patient risk factors. The reported perioperative mortality is 18-26%. One of the main issues is the management of patients taking anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs, as the risk of bleeding has to be counterbalanced with the risk of arterial thrombosis due to discontinuation. Additionally, the presence of symptomatic carotid stenosis should be taken into account in the risk evaluation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  To date, current guidelines are incomplete regarding the management of patients with vascular disease undergoing nonvascular surgery. It is recommended to stop oral anticoagulation approximately 5 days before major surgery to adequately allow the INR to normalize, and at the same time subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin or intravenous unfractionated heparin should be started. Regarding new anticoagulants, dabigatran does not need to be withheld for minor procedures. Currently, there are no clear recommendations on the use of rivaroxaban and apixaban. Data concerning the management of patients undergoing antiplatelet therapy are lacking. To date, neurologists discourage the perioperative withdrawal of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid, ASA) especially in patients in secondary prevention. The 'Antiplatelet Agents in the Perioperative Management of Patients Trial' is ongoing to assess the safety and determine the optimal use of ASA in the perioperative management of patients undergoing general and abdominal surgery. In the meantime an individualized, accurate, multidisciplinary (surgical, neurological, cardiological and anesthesiological) risk/benefit assessment remains the best basis for treatment decision.
authors.affiliation: Stroke Unit and Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy. federica.doc@hotmail.it
authors.forename: Federica
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Macellari
authors.forename: Maurizio
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Paciaroni
authors.forename: Giancarlo
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Agnelli
authors.forename: Valeria
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Caso
mesh_terms: D000925:Anticoagulants / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000075202:Contraindications; D005260:Female; D013502:General Surgery; D006470:Hemorrhage / Q000453:epidemiology; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D059035:Perioperative Period; D012307:Risk Factors; D020521:Stroke / Q000453:epidemiology*; D013927:Thrombosis / Q000517:prevention & control; D028761:Withholding Treatment
chemical_list: D000925:Anticoagulants