title: Terrestrial activity in pitheciins (Cacajao, Chiropotes, and Pithecia).
abstract: Neotropical monkeys of the genera Cacajao, Chiropotes, and Pithecia (Pitheciidae) are considered to be highly arboreal, spending most of their time feeding and traveling in the upper canopy. Until now, the use of terrestrial substrates has not been analyzed in detail in this group. Here, we review the frequency of terrestrial use among pitheciin taxa to determine the ecological and social conditions that might lead to such behavior. We collated published and unpublished data from 14 taxa in the three genera. Data were gleaned from 53 published studies (including five on multiple pitheciin genera) and personal communications of unpublished data distributed across 31 localities. Terrestrial activity was reported in 61% of Pithecia field studies (11 of 18), in 34% of Chiropotes studies (10 of 29), and 36% of Cacajao studies (4 of 11). Within Pithecia, terrestrial behavior was more frequently reported in smaller species (e.g. P. pithecia) that are vertical clingers and leapers and make extensive use of the understory than in in the larger bodied canopy dwellers of the western Amazon (e.g. P. irrorata). Terrestrial behavior in Pithecia also occurred more frequently and lasted longer than in Cacajao or Chiropotes. An apparent association was found between flooded habitats and terrestrial activity and there is evidence of the development of a "local pattern" of terrestrial use in some populations. Seasonal fruit availability also may stimulate terrestrial behavior. Individuals also descended to the ground when visiting mineral licks, escaping predators, and responding to accidents such as a dropped infant. Overall, the results of this review emphasize that terrestrial use is rare among the pitheciins in general and is usually associated with the exploitation of specific resources or habitat types.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Research in Evolutionary and Environmental Anthropology, Roehampton University, London, England. adrian.barnett1.biology@gmail.com
authors.forename: Adrian A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Barnett
authors.forename: Sarah A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Boyle
authors.forename: Marilyn M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Norconk
authors.forename: Suzanne
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Palminteri
authors.forename: Ricardo R
authors.initials: RR
authors.lastname: Santos
authors.forename: Liza M
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Veiga
authors.forename: Thiago H G
authors.initials: TH
authors.lastname: Alvim
authors.forename: Mark
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Bowler
authors.forename: Janice
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Chism
authors.forename: Anthony
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: DI Fiore
authors.forename: Eduardo
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Fernandez-Duque
authors.forename: Ana C P
authors.initials: AC
authors.lastname: Guimarães
authors.forename: Amy
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Harrison-Levine
authors.forename: Torbjørn
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Haugaasen
authors.forename: Shawn
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Lehman
authors.forename: Katherine C
authors.initials: KC
authors.lastname: Mackinnon
authors.forename: Fabiano R
authors.initials: FR
authors.lastname: DE Melo
authors.forename: Leandro S
authors.initials: LS
authors.lastname: Moreira
authors.forename: Viviane S
authors.initials: VS
authors.lastname: Moura
authors.forename: Carson R
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Phillips
authors.forename: Liliam P
authors.initials: LP
authors.lastname: Pinto
authors.forename: Marcio
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Port-Carvalho
authors.forename: Eleonore Z F
authors.initials: EZ
authors.lastname: Setz
authors.forename: Christopher
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Shaffer
authors.forename: Lívia Rodrigues
authors.initials: LR
authors.lastname: DA Silva
authors.forename: Suleima D O S B
authors.initials: SD
authors.lastname: DA Silva
authors.forename: Rafaela F
authors.initials: RF
authors.lastname: Soares
authors.forename: Cynthia L
authors.initials: CL
authors.lastname: Thompson
authors.forename: Tatiana M
authors.initials: TM
authors.lastname: Vieira
authors.forename: Arioene
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Vreedzaam
authors.forename: Suzanne E
authors.initials: SE
authors.lastname: Walker-Pacheco
authors.forename: Wilson R
authors.initials: WR
authors.lastname: Spironello
authors.forename: Ann
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Maclarnon
authors.forename: Stephen F
authors.initials: SF
authors.lastname: Ferrari
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001522:Behavior, Animal; D017753:Ecosystem; D005260:Female; D008297:Male; D053820:Pitheciidae; D011235:Predatory Behavior; D012621:Seasons; D013020:South America