title: Growing old before growing rich: inequality in health service utilization among the mid-aged and elderly in Gansu and Zhejiang Provinces, China.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  China's recent growth in income has been unequally distributed, resulting in an unusually rapid retreat from relative income equality, which has impacted negatively on health services access. There exists a significant gap between health care utilization in rural and urban areas and inequality in health care access due to differences in socioeconomic status is increasing. We investigate inequality in service utilization among the mid-aged and elderly, with a special attention of health insurance.
  
  
  METHODS
  This paper measures the income-related inequality and horizontal inequity in inpatient and outpatient health care utilization among the mid-aged and elderly in two provinces of China. The data for this study come from the pilot survey of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study in Gansu and Zhejiang. Concentration Index (CI) and its decomposition approach were deployed to reflect inequality degree and explore the source of these inequalities.
  
  
  RESULTS
  There is a pro-rich inequality in the probability of receiving health service utilization in Gansu (CI outpatient = 0.067; CI inpatient = 0.011) and outpatient for Zhejiang (CI = 0.016), but a pro-poor inequality in inpatient utilization in Zhejiang (CI = -0.090). All the Horizontal Inequity Indices (HI) are positive. Income was the dominant factor in health care utilization for out-patient in Gansu (40.3 percent) and Zhejiang (55.5 percent). The non-need factors' contribution to inequity in Gansu and Zhejiang outpatient care had the same pattern across the two provinces, with the factors evenly split between pro-rich and pro-poor biases. The insurance schemes were strongly pro-rich, except New Cooperative Medical Scheme (NCMS) in Zhejiang.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  For the middle-aged and elderly, there is a strong pro-rich inequality of health care utilization in both provinces. Income was the most important factor in outpatient care in both provinces, but access to inpatient care was driven by a mix of income, need and non-need factors that significantly differed across and within the two provinces. These differences were the result of different levels of health care provision, different out-of-pocket expenses for health care and different access to and coverage of health insurance for rural and urban families. To address health care utilization inequality, China will need to reduce the unequal distribution of income and expand the coverage of its health insurance schemes.
authors.affiliation: Center for Health Management and Policy, Shandong University, Shandong, China.
authors.forename: Yang
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.forename: Jian
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.forename: Elizabeth
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Maitland
authors.forename: Yaohui
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Zhao
authors.forename: Stephen
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Nicholas
authors.forename: Mingshan
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Lu
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000375:Aging; D002681:China; D005260:Female; D019538:Health Care Surveys; D006296:Health Services / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D054625:Healthcare Disparities; D006801:Humans; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D012923:Social Class; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors