title: Exploring the borders of European Phragmites within a cosmopolitan genus.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Two Phragmites australis taxa are recognized in Europe: P. australis ssp. altissimus, also known as Phragmites isiaca, in the Mediterranean region and P. australis in the temperate region. Another taxonomic group in the Mediterranean is Phragmites frutescens. European genotypes are diverse genetically, cytologically and morphologically, and are related to African, Asiatic and American genotypes. We investigated chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) diversity in Europe and defined the current borders of the European gene pool.
  
  
  METHODS
  We analysed chloroplast variation with parsimony and genetic distance methods, and compared it with that of nuclear amplified fragment length polymorphism and microsatellites. We also investigated the phenological pattern of 188 genotypes collected worldwide in a common garden in Denmark. We assumed that non-flowering genotypes could indicate climatic, geographic and/or reproductive barriers to dispersal and would have been recorded in the genetic pattern as groups genetically isolated from, or within, the European pool.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The European P. australis gene pool extends from North America to the Far East and South Africa. However, African and North American genotypes are differentiating from the European genotypes. Mediterranean P. australis is genetically different from temperate P. australis and shares several similarities with Phragmites mauritianus in Africa and Phragmites karka in Asia. Phragmites frutescens shares the cpDNA sequences with both these tropical species. Two DNA bands can distinguish Mediterranean P. australis from P. frutescens and P. mauritianus and from temperate P. australis, and reveal possible hybrids among these species in the Mediterranean region. Phenological data confirmed possible gene flow within the temperate region of Europe, whereas the Mediterranean genotypes did not set inflorescences in Denmark, suggesting reproductive barriers between temperate and Mediterranean P. australis.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  European P. australis appears as one of four main Phragmites groups known in the world. Further research is needed to understand the implications of long-distance dispersal at the population level.
authors.affiliation: Department of Bioscience, Plant Biology ,  Aarhus University, Ole Worms Allé 1, bld. 1135, 8000 Aarhus C ,  Denmark.
authors.forename: Carla
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Lambertini
authors.forename: Brian K
authors.initials: BK
authors.lastname: Sorrell
authors.forename: Tenna
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Riis
authors.forename: Birgit
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Olesen
authors.forename: Hans
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Brix