title: Resting heart rate and outcomes in patients with cardiovascular disease: where do we currently stand?
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Data from large epidemiological studies suggest that elevated heart rate is independently associated with cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in patients with hypertension and in those with established cardiovascular disease. Clinical trial findings also suggest that the favorable effects of beta-blockers and other heart rate-lowering agents in patients with acute myocardial infarction and congestive heart failure may be, at least in part, due to their heart rate-lowering effects. Contemporary clinical outcome prediction models such as the Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events (GRACE) score include admission heart rate as an independent risk factor.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  This article critically reviews the key epidemiology concerning heart rate and cardiovascular risk, potential mechanisms through which an elevated resting heart rate may be disadvantageous and evaluates clinical trial outcomes associated with pharmacological reduction in resting heart rate.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Prospective randomised data from patients with significant coronary heart disease or heart failure suggest that intervention to reduce heart rate in those with a resting heart rate >70 bpm may reduce cardiovascular risk. Given the established observational data and randomised trial evidence, it now appears appropriate to include reduction of elevated resting heart rate by lifestyle +/- pharmacological therapy as part of a secondary prevention strategy in patients with cardiovascular disease.
authors.affiliation: Craigavon Cardiac Centre, Craigavon, UK. ian.menown@southerntrust.hscni.net
authors.forename: Ian B A
authors.initials: IB
authors.lastname: Menown
authors.forename: Simon
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Davies
authors.forename: Sandeep
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Gupta
authors.forename: Paul R
authors.initials: PR
authors.lastname: Kalra
authors.forename: Chim C
authors.initials: CC
authors.lastname: Lang
authors.forename: Chris
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Morley
authors.forename: Sandosh
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Padmanabhan
mesh_terms: D002317:Cardiovascular Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000401:mortality / Q000503:physiopathology; D006339:Heart Rate / Q000187:drug effects*; D006801:Humans; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012307:Risk Factors; D016896:Treatment Outcome
chemical_list: D002317:Cardiovascular Agents