title: Changes in gene expression induced by aromatic amine drugs: testing the danger hypothesis.
abstract: Virtually all drugs that contain a primary aromatic amine are associated with a high incidence of idiosyncratic drug reactions (IDRs), suggesting that this functional group has biological effects that may be used as biomarkers to predict IDR risk. Most IDRs exhibit evidence of immune involvement and the ability of aromatic amines to form reactive metabolites and redox cycle may be responsible for initiation of an immune response through induction of cell stress, as postulated by the Danger Hypothesis. If true, danger signals could be biomarkers of IDR risk. A previous attempt to test the Danger Hypothesis found that sulfamethoxazole (SMX), the only aromatic amine tested, was also the only drug not associated with an increase of cell stress genes in mice. To ensure that these observations were not species-specific, and to determine biomarkers of IDR risk common to aromatic amines, rats were treated with SMX and two other aromatic amine drugs, dapsone (DDS) and aminoglutethimide (AMG), and hepatic gene expression was determined using microarrays. As in mice, SMX induced minimal gene changes in the rat, and none indicated cell stress, whereas DDS and AMG induced several changes including up-regulation of enzymes such as aldo-keto reductase, glutathione-S-transferase, and aldehyde dehydrogenase, which may represent danger signals. Early insulin-induced hepatic gene (Eiih) was up-regulated by all three drugs. Some mRNA changes were observed in the Keap-1-Nrf2-ARE pathway; however, the pattern was significantly different for each drug. Overall, the most salient finding was that the changes in the liver were minimal, even though aromatic amines cause a high incidence of IDRs. The liver generates a large number of reactive species; however, the ability of aromatic amines to be bioactivated by cells of the immune system may be why they cause a high incidence of IDRs.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
authors.forename: Winnie
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Ng
authors.forename: Jack
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Uetrecht
mesh_terms: D000588:Amines / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000009:adverse effects*; D000616:Aminoglutethimide / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D000818:Animals; D054316:Biomarkers, Pharmacological / Q000378:metabolism; D002265:Carboxylic Ester Hydrolases / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism; D003622:Dapsone / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000009:adverse effects*; D020869:Gene Expression Profiling; D005786:Gene Expression Regulation / Q000187:drug effects*; D006801:Humans; D047908:Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism; D000072019:Kelch-Like ECH-Associated Protein 1; D008099:Liver / Q000187:drug effects / Q000473:pathology; D008297:Male; D051379:Mice; D046228:Microarray Analysis; D051267:NF-E2-Related Factor 2 / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism; D011506:Proteins / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism; D051381:Rats; D011919:Rats, Inbred Strains; D015398:Signal Transduction / Q000187:drug effects; D013420:Sulfamethoxazole / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000009:adverse effects*
chemical_list: D000588:Amines; D054316:Biomarkers, Pharmacological; D047908:Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins; C486610:KEAP1 protein, rat; D000072019:Kelch-Like ECH-Associated Protein 1; D051267:NF-E2-Related Factor 2; C495637:Nfe2l2 protein, rat; D011506:Proteins; C501294:Tsku protein, rat; D000616:Aminoglutethimide; D003622:Dapsone; D002265:Carboxylic Ester Hydrolases; C019734:arylesterase; D013420:Sulfamethoxazole