title: Dog ownership and physical activity: a review of the evidence.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Dog walking is a strategy for increasing population levels of physical activity (PA). Numerous cross-sectional studies of the relationship between dog ownership and PA have been conducted. The purpose was to review studies comparing PA of dog owners (DO) to nondog owners (NDO), summarize the prevalence of dog walking, and provide recommendations for research.
  
  
  METHODS
  A review of published studies (1990-2010) examining DO and NDO PA and the prevalence of dog walking was conducted (N = 29). Studies estimating the relationship between dog ownership and PA were grouped to create a point- estimate using meta-analysis.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Most studies were conducted in the last 5 years, were cross-sectional, and sampled adults from Australia or the United States. Approximately 60% of DO walked their dog, with a median duration and frequency of 160 minutes/week and 4 walks/week, respectively. Meta-analysis showed DO engage in more walking and PA than NDO and the effect sizes are small to moderate (d = 0.26 and d = 0.16, respectively). Three studies provided evidence of a directional relationship between dog ownership and walking.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Longitudinal and interventional studies would provide stronger causal evidence for the relationship between dog ownership and PA. Improved knowledge of factors associated with dog walking will guide intervention research.
authors.affiliation: School of Population Health, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.
authors.forename: Hayley E
authors.initials: HE
authors.lastname: Christian
authors.forename: Carri
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Westgarth
authors.forename: Adrian
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Bauman
authors.forename: Elizabeth A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Richards
authors.forename: Ryan E
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: Rhodes
authors.forename: Kelly R
authors.initials: KR
authors.lastname: Evenson
authors.forename: Joni A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Mayer
authors.forename: Roland J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Thorpe
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D000818:Animals; D001315:Australia; D004285:Dogs; D015444:Exercise; D006801:Humans; D015201:Meta-Analysis as Topic; D008875:Middle Aged; D057805:Pets; D015995:Prevalence; D011998:Recreation; D014481:United States; D016138:Walking / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*