title: Self-paced brain-computer interface control of ambulation in a virtual reality environment.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Spinal cord injury (SCI) often leaves affected individuals unable to ambulate. Electroencephalogram (EEG) based brain-computer interface (BCI) controlled lower extremity prostheses may restore intuitive and able-body-like ambulation after SCI. To test its feasibility, the authors developed and tested a novel EEG-based, data-driven BCI system for intuitive and self-paced control of the ambulation of an avatar within a virtual reality environment (VRE).
  
  
  METHODS
  Eight able-bodied subjects and one with SCI underwent the following 10-min training session: subjects alternated between idling and walking kinaesthetic motor imageries (KMI) while their EEG were recorded and analysed to generate subject-specific decoding models. Subjects then performed a goal-oriented online task, repeated over five sessions, in which they utilized the KMI to control the linear ambulation of an avatar and make ten sequential stops at designated points within the VRE.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The average offline training performance across subjects was 77.2 ± 11.0%, ranging from 64.3% (p = 0.001 76) to 94.5% (p = 6.26 × 10(-23)), with chance performance being 50%. The average online performance was 8.5 ± 1.1 (out of 10) successful stops and 303 ± 53 s completion time (perfect = 211 s). All subjects achieved performances significantly different than those of random walk (p < 0.05) in 44 of the 45 online sessions.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  By using a data-driven machine learning approach to decode users' KMI, this BCI-VRE system enabled intuitive and purposeful self-paced control of ambulation after only 10 minutes training. The ability to achieve such BCI control with minimal training indicates that the implementation of future BCI-lower extremity prosthesis systems may be feasible.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
authors.forename: Po T
authors.initials: PT
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.forename: Christine E
authors.initials: CE
authors.lastname: King
authors.forename: Luis A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Chui
authors.forename: An H
authors.initials: AH
authors.lastname: Do
authors.forename: Zoran
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Nenadic
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D062207:Brain-Computer Interfaces; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D010775:Photic Stimulation / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods; D011597:Psychomotor Performance / Q000502:physiology; D012815:Signal Processing, Computer-Assisted / Q000295:instrumentation; D014584:User-Computer Interface; D063367:Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods*; D016138:Walking / Q000502:physiology* / Q000523:psychology; D055815:Young Adult