title: Simultaneous measurement of urinary total nicotine and cotinine as biomarkers of active and passive smoking among Japanese individuals.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Measuring urinary cotinine is a popular and established method of biologically monitoring exposure to tobacco smoke. However, the lower detection limit of cotinine often impedes the evaluation of passive (second-hand) smoking and this, together with unconverted nicotine, does not reflect actual levels of exposure. Furthermore, a portion of the Japanese population might have decreased ability to metabolize nicotine. The present study was therefore carried out to validate the simultaneous analysis of total concentrations of free nicotine and cotinine and their glucuronides to determine actual levels of voluntary and involuntary exposure to cigarette smoke.
  
  
  METHODS
  Urine samples from 118 Japanese smokers and 117 non-smokers were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Voluntary and involuntary smoking status was self-reported and workplace smoking restrictions were objectively evaluated.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The integrated sum of all concentrations showed 2.2- and 2.4-fold higher total levels (free and glucuronide) of nicotine and cotinine relative to the free levels. Median (quartiles) of total nicotine and cotinine were 1635 (2222) and 3948 (3512) ng/mL in smokers, and 3.5 (5.3) and 2.8 (4.2) ng/mL in non-smokers. Concentrations of urinary nicotine were higher than those of cotinine in 21 % of smokers and in 54 % of non-smokers. Nicotine and cotinine levels were significantly associated with a smoking habit, as well as being significantly associated with the workplace and home environments of non-smokers.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The present method can monitor voluntary and involuntary exposure to tobacco smoke. Measuring total urinary nicotine levels might be useful for analyzing exposure to cigarette smoke among non-smokers.
authors.affiliation: Department of Social Medicine, Saga Medical School, 5-1-1 Nabeshima, Saga 849-8501, Japan. matsumoa@cc.saga-u.ac.jp
authors.forename: Akiko
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Matsumoto
authors.forename: Akane
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Matsumoto
authors.forename: Masayoshi
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Ichiba
authors.forename: Nicole M
authors.initials: NM
authors.lastname: Payton
authors.forename: Hirotaka
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Oishi
authors.forename: Megumi
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hara
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000652:urine*; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000652:urine; D003367:Cotinine / Q000652:urine*; D005260:Female; D008401:Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry / Q000379:methods*; D020719:Glucuronides / Q000652:urine; D006801:Humans; D007564:Japan; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009538:Nicotine / Q000652:urine*; D012907:Smoking / Q000652:urine*; D014028:Tobacco Smoke Pollution / Q000032:analysis*; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D000393:Air Pollutants; D015415:Biomarkers; D020719:Glucuronides; D014028:Tobacco Smoke Pollution; D009538:Nicotine; D003367:Cotinine