title: Bone structure and geometry in young men: the influence of smoking, alcohol intake and physical activity.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The development of osteoporosis is influenced by peak bone mass attained in youth - the influence of lifestyle factors upon which is poorly described, especially amongst males. We sought to address this issue in a large scale study.
  
  
  METHODS
  Hip bone mineral density (dual X-ray absorptiometry, DXA), bone microarchitecture (calcaneal quantitative ultrasound, QUS) and femoral geometry (magnetic resonance imaging, MRI) were characterised in 723 healthy male military recruits (mean ± S.E. age 19.92 ± 0.09 years [range 16-18 years], height 177.67 ± 0.24 cm, weight 73.17 ± 0.37 kg) on entry to UK Army training. Association was sought with prior physical activity, smoking status and alcohol intake.
  
  
  RESULTS
  DXA measures were made in 651, MRI measures in 650, and QUS measures in 572 recruits. Increasing levels of weight-bearing physical activity enhanced periostial bone apposition, increases in both total hip and femoral neck bone mineral density (BMD; p ≤ 0.0001 in both cases), and cortical [p<0.0001] and periostial bone volumes [p=0.016]. Smoking habit was associated with preserved bone geometry, but worse BMD [p=0.0001] and QUS characteristics [p ≤ 0.0005]. Moderate alcohol consumption was associated with greater BMD [p ≤ 0.015].
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Whilst exercise (and perhaps moderate alcohol intake) is beneficial to bone morphometry, smoking is detrimental to bone mineral density in young males notable for the likely short duration of smoking to influence skeletal properties. However, differences in socio-economic status, lifestyle and related environmental factors may to some extent confound our results.
authors.affiliation: UCL Institute of Human Health and Performance, UCL Archway Campus, Highgate Hill, Archway, London, N19 5LW, UK.
authors.forename: Kyriacos I
authors.initials: KI
authors.lastname: Eleftheriou
authors.forename: Jaikirty S
authors.initials: JS
authors.lastname: Rawal
authors.forename: Lawrence E
authors.initials: LE
authors.lastname: James
authors.forename: John R
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Payne
authors.forename: Mike
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Loosemore
authors.forename: Dudley J
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Pennell
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: World
authors.forename: Fotios
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Drenos
authors.forename: Fares S
authors.initials: FS
authors.lastname: Haddad
authors.forename: Steve E
authors.initials: SE
authors.lastname: Humphries
authors.forename: Julie
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Sanders
authors.forename: Hugh E
authors.initials: HE
authors.lastname: Montgomery
mesh_terms: D015502:Absorptiometry, Photon; D000293:Adolescent; D000428:Alcohol Drinking; D015519:Bone Density; D001842:Bone and Bones / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D015331:Cohort Studies; D006801:Humans; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D008297:Male; D009043:Motor Activity; D010641:Phenotype; D012907:Smoking; D044465:White People