title: What eye movements can tell about theory of mind in a strategic game.
abstract: This study investigates strategies in reasoning about mental states of others, a process that requires theory of mind. It is a first step in studying the cognitive basis of such reasoning, as strategies affect tradeoffs between cognitive resources. Participants were presented with a two-player game that required reasoning about the mental states of the opponent. Game theory literature discerns two candidate strategies that participants could use in this game: either forward reasoning or backward reasoning. Forward reasoning proceeds from the first decision point to the last, whereas backward reasoning proceeds in the opposite direction. Backward reasoning is the only optimal strategy, because the optimal outcome is known at each decision point. Nevertheless, we argue that participants prefer forward reasoning because it is similar to causal reasoning. Causal reasoning, in turn, is prevalent in human reasoning. Eye movements were measured to discern between forward and backward progressions of fixations. The observed fixation sequences corresponded best with forward reasoning. Early in games, the probability of observing a forward progression of fixations is higher than the probability of observing a backward progression. Later in games, the probabilities of forward and backward progressions are similar, which seems to imply that participants were either applying backward reasoning or jumping back to previous decision points while applying forward reasoning. Thus, the game-theoretical favorite strategy, backward reasoning, does seem to exist in human reasoning. However, participants preferred the more familiar, practiced, and prevalent strategy: forward reasoning.
authors.affiliation: Department of Artificial Intelligence, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands. b.meijering@rug.nl
authors.forename: Ben
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Meijering
authors.forename: Hedderik
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: van Rijn
authors.forename: Niels A
authors.initials: NA
authors.lastname: Taatgen
authors.forename: Rineke
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Verbrugge
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D003657:Decision Making; D005133:Eye Movements; D005260:Female; D005717:Games, Experimental; D006801:Humans; D010988:Play and Playthings; D011336:Probability; D011340:Problem Solving; D056345:Theory of Mind; D055815:Young Adult