title: Multilevel Societies in New World Primates? Flexibility May Characterize the Organization of Peruvian Red Uakaris (Cacajao calvus ucayalii).
abstract: Researchers have described multilevel societies with one-male, multifemale units (OMUs) forming within a larger group in several catarrhine species, but not in platyrhines. OMUs in multilevel societies are associated with extremely large group sizes, often with >100 individuals, and the only platyrhine genus that forms groups of this size is Cacajao. We review available evidence for multilevel organization and the formation of OMUs in groups of Cacajao, and test predictions for the frequency distribution patterns of male-male and male-female interindividual distances within groups of red-faced uakaris (Cacajao calvus ucayalii), comparing year-round data with those collected at the peak of the breeding season, when group cohesion may be more pronounced. Groups of Cacajao fission and fuse, forming subgroup sizes at frequencies consistent with an OMU organization. In Cacajao calvus ucayalii and Cacajao calvus calvus, bachelor groups are also observed, a characteristic of several catarrhine species that form OMUs. However, researchers have observed both multimale-multifemale groups and groups with a single male and multiple females in Cacajao calvus. The frequency distributions of interindividual distances for male-male and male-female dyads are consistent with an OMU-based organization, but alternative interpretations of these data are possible. The distribution of interindividual distances collected during the peak breeding season differed from those collected year-round, indicating seasonal changes in the spatial organization of Cacajao calvus ucayalii. We suggest a high degree of flexibility may characterize the social organization of Cacajao calvus ucayalii, which may form OMUs under certain conditions. Further studies with identifiable individuals, thus far not possible in Cacajao, are required to confirm the social organization.
authors.affiliation: School of Psychology, University of St. Andrews, KY16 9JP St. Andrews, UK  ; Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center (DPZ), 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Mark
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Bowler
authors.forename: Christoph
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Knogge
authors.forename: Eckhard W
authors.initials: EW
authors.lastname: Heymann
authors.forename: Dietmar
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Zinner