title: Should researchers use single indicators, best indicators, or multiple indicators in structural equation models?
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Structural equation modeling developed as a statistical melding of path analysis and factor analysis that obscured a fundamental tension between a factor preference for multiple indicators and path modeling's openness to fewer indicators.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Multiple indicators hamper theory by unnecessarily restricting the number of modeled latents. Using the few best indicators - possibly even the single best indicator of each latent - encourages development of theoretically sophisticated models. Additional latent variables permit stronger statistical control of potential confounders, and encourage detailed investigation of mediating causal mechanisms.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We recommend the use of the few best indicators. One or two indicators are often sufficient, but three indicators may occasionally be helpful. More than three indicators are rarely warranted because additional redundant indicators provide less research benefit than single indicators of additional latent variables. Scales created from multiple indicators can introduce additional problems, and are prone to being less desirable than either single or multiple indicators.
authors.affiliation: Department of Sociology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H4, Canada. LHayduk@ualberta.ca
authors.forename: Leslie A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Hayduk
authors.forename: Levente
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Littvay
mesh_terms: D000704:Analysis of Variance; D015982:Bias; D015984:Causality; D005163:Factor Analysis, Statistical; D006305:Health Status Indicators; D006801:Humans; D015233:Models, Statistical; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D017711:Nonlinear Dynamics; D012107:Research Design; D012108:Research Personnel; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires