title: Investigation of outbreaks complicated by universal exposure.
abstract: Outbreaks in which most or all persons were exposed to the same suspected source of infection, so-called universal exposure, are common. They represent a challenge for public health specialists because conducting analytical studies in such investigations is complicated by the absence of a nonexposed group. We describe different strategies that can support investigations of outbreaks with universal exposure. The value of descriptive epidemiology, extensive environmental investigation, and the hypothesis-generation phase cannot be overemphasized. An exposure that seems universal may in fact not be universal when additional aspects of the exposure are taken into account. Each exposure has unique characteristics that may not be captured when investigators rely on the tools readily at hand, such as standard questionnaires. We therefore encourage field epidemiologists to be creative and consider the use of alternative data sources or original techniques in their investigations of outbreaks with universal exposure.
authors.affiliation: Department of Primary and Community Care Medicine, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 10, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands. almatostmann@yahoo.com
authors.forename: Alma
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Tostmann
authors.forename: Teun
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Bousema
authors.forename: Isabel
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Oliver
mesh_terms: D003141:Communicable Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology*; D004196:Disease Outbreaks; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D006801:Humans; D011634:Public Health; D012106:Research