title: The nocebo effect: a clinicians guide.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This paper aims to provide an overview on the nocebo effect, focusing on recognition - its phenomenology, at-risk demographic profiles, clinical situations and personality factors, as well as discriminating somatic symptoms in the general population from treatment-related adverse effects. Lastly, the paper addresses available evidence-based strategies for management and minimisation of the nocebo effect.
  
  
  METHODS
  Data for this paper were identified by searching PubMed using the search terms "nocebo" and "nocebo effect", augmented by a manual search of the references of the key papers and the related literature.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The nocebo effect refers to non-pharmacodynamic, harmful or undesirable effects occurring after inactive treatment, a phenomenon that also occurs in the context of active therapy. Known drivers include classical conditioning and negative expectations concerning treatment. Recent meta-analyses have reported a considerable prevalence, ranging from 18% in the symptomatic treatment of migraine, to more than 74% in multiple sclerosis. Recognition of the nocebo-driven adverse effects presents a challenge, especially because of its non-specific nature and the similarity to the active medication's expected profile. Traits such as neuroticism, pessimism and type A personalities may predispose individuals to this phenomenon. Clinical management of the nocebo effect includes awareness and recognition, changing the manner of disclosure of potential drug-related adverse effects, shaping patients' expectations and enhancing the treatment alliance.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The nocebo effect is a common, clinically significant, yet covert driver of clinical outcomes. Increased awareness of its features, as well as knowledge of strategies on how to manage it, are fundamental so that clinicians can mitigate its impact on clinical practice.
authors.affiliation: Psychiatric Department, Hospital Santa Maria, Lisbon, Portugal. joaodatafranco@gmail.com
authors.forename: João
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Data-Franco
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Berk
mesh_terms: D006801:Humans; D064786:Nocebo Effect; D010551:Personality; D012307:Risk Factors
keywords: Nocebo; adverse effects; placebo; treatment outcomes