title: Socio-economic status, urbanization, and cardiometabolic risk factors among middle-aged adults in Tanzania.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This study was conducted to examine the associations between socioeconomic status, urbanization, and cardio-metabolic risk factors in Tanzania.
  
  
  METHODS
  Participants were 209 adults (45-66 years) in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. A structured questionnaire was used to evaluate socioeconomic status and behavioral characteristics, including income, education, occupation, residence (urban, rural, mixed), dietary factors, and smoking. Blood samples were collected and analyzed to measure lipid profiles and fasting glucose levels. Cardiometabolic risk factors were defined using World Health Organization criteria.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Urban residence and higher socioeconomic status were associated with decreased intake of traditional staple food (ugali), and increased consumption of meat products and beverages. Higher socioeconomic status was associated with a significant 3.5-kg/m2 higher BMI (p = 0.0001) and 8 cm higher waist circumference (p < 0.001), and a three-fold increase in the risk of obesity. Urban residence was associated with poorer lipid profile, including significantly higher total cholesterol, increased LDL cholesterol, but lower triglycerides, compared to rural residence. The prevalence of metabolic syndrome was high (38%), and was associated with increased socioeconomic status.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Urban residence and higher socioeconomic status were important correlates of cardiometabolic risk factors, including obesity and poorer lipid profile. Primary prevention and health screening strategies are needed to target cardiometabolic risk factors in urban areas, to reduce the burden of cardiovascular disease in Tanzania.
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiology, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, P.O.Box 65001 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. mnjelekela@muhas.ac.tz
authors.forename: M A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Njelekela
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Liu
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Mpembeni
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Muhihi
authors.forename: N
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Mligiliche
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Spiegelman
authors.forename: J L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Finkelstein
authors.forename: W W
authors.initials: WW
authors.lastname: Fawzi
authors.forename: W C
authors.initials: WC
authors.lastname: Willett
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Mtabaji
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001786:Blood Glucose / Q000032:analysis; D001794:Blood Pressure; D015992:Body Mass Index; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000209:etiology* / Q000517:prevention & control; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004032:Diet; D015444:Exercise; D005260:Female; D015438:Health Behavior; D006801:Humans; D008019:Life Style; D008055:Lipids / Q000097:blood; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D024821:Metabolic Syndrome / Q000150:complications*; D008875:Middle Aged; D009765:Obesity / Q000150:complications / Q000175:diagnosis; D012111:Residence Characteristics; D012307:Risk Factors; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013636:Tanzania; D014504:Urban Health; D014507:Urbanization; D055105:Waist Circumference
chemical_list: D001786:Blood Glucose; D008055:Lipids