title: Thyroid hormones in relation to lead, mercury, and cadmium exposure in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2007-2008.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Heavy metals, such as lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and cadmium (Cd), are known toxicants, but their associations with the thyroid axis have not been well quantified at U.S. background levels.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  We investigated the relationships between thyroid hormones (total and free thyroxine [TT4 and FT4], total and free triiodothyronine [TT3 and FT3], thyroid-stimulating hormone [TSH], and thyroglobulin [Tg]) and levels of Pb, Hg, and Cd in blood and Cd in urine.
  
  
  METHODS
  We separately analyzed a sample of 1,109 adolescents (12-19 years of age) and a sample of 4,409 adults from the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2007-2008. We estimated associations after adjusting for age, sex, race, urinary iodine, body mass index, and serum cotinine.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The geometric mean (GM) levels of blood Pb (BPb), total Hg, and Cd were 0.81 µg/dL, 0.47 µg/L, and 0.21 µg/L in adolescents and 1.43 µg/dL, 0.96 µg/L, and 0.38 µg/L in adults, respectively. The GMs of urinary Cd were 0.07 and 0.25 µg/g creatinine in adolescents and adults, respectively. No consistent pattern of metal and thyroid hormone associations was observed in adolescents. In adults, blood Hg was inversely related to TT4, TT3, and FT3 and urinary Cd was positively associated with TT4, TT3, FT3, and Tg, but there were no associations with Pb. Associations were relatively weak at an individual level, with about 1-4% change in thyroid hormones per interquartile range increase in Hg or Cd.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our analysis suggests an inverse association between Hg exposure and thyroid hormones, and a positive association between Cd exposure and thyroid hormones in adults.
authors.affiliation: Department of Environmental Health, Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA. aimin.chen@uc.edu
authors.forename: Aimin
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Chen
authors.forename: Stephani S
authors.initials: SS
authors.lastname: Kim
authors.forename: Ethan
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Chung
authors.forename: Kim N
authors.initials: KN
authors.lastname: Dietrich
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002104:Cadmium / Q000633:toxicity*; D002648:Child; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007854:Lead / Q000633:toxicity*; D057230:Limit of Detection; D008297:Male; D013058:Mass Spectrometry; D008628:Mercury / Q000633:toxicity*; D009749:Nutrition Surveys; D013963:Thyroid Hormones / Q000097:blood*; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D013963:Thyroid Hormones; D002104:Cadmium; D007854:Lead; D008628:Mercury