title: Complex posttraumatic stress disorder and survivors of human rights violations.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This article reviews recent findings on Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (CPTSD) and proposes future research which would help to establish the nature of CPTSD in relation to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Research on survivors of torture and war has found that CPTSD can occur when there is no history of childhood abuse. fMRI studies appear to highlight differences in neural activity in individuals exhibiting primary dissociation compared with individuals exhibiting secondary dissociation. Research has begun to show that, when symptoms of secondary dissociation are appropriately managed, exposure-based therapies are an effective treatment for individuals with CPTSD.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Much research on CPTSD has emphasized its developmental basis and the disruptive effects of trauma in childhood and adolescence on subsequent emotional development. However, some studies on survivors of torture in adult life identify similar symptom patterns, despite there being no history of childhood trauma. It is argued that comparative research is required between victims of developmental trauma (such as childhood sexual abuse) and victims who experienced prolonged interpersonal trauma in adulthood (such as torture), as this could be useful in establishing the cause of CPTSD and in delineating clinically and therapeutically meaningful subtypes. It is also proposed that a focus on underlying neurobiological processes would help in developing and refining CPTSD as a construct and informing treatment.
authors.affiliation: Helen Bamber Foundation, London, UK.
authors.forename: Matthew
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: McDonnell
authors.forename: Katy
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Robjant
authors.forename: Cornelius
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Katona
mesh_terms: D001921:Brain / Q000503:physiopathology; D038524:Diffusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D004213:Dissociative Disorders / Q000209:etiology / Q000503:physiopathology; D045809:Human Rights Abuses / Q000523:psychology*; D006801:Humans; D013313:Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic / Q000209:etiology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D017741:Survivors / Q000523:psychology*; D014104:Torture / Q000523:psychology