title: Nephroureteral stents: principles and techniques.
abstract: Nephroureteral stents including antegrade, retrograde, or internal (double-J) stents are routinely placed by interventional radiologists. The purpose of this review is to provide a detailed and comprehensive description of indications, contraindications, technique, and various technical challenges of these procedures. Also pre- and postprocedure management of patients will be discussed including routine follow-up and dealing with potential complications.
authors.affiliation: Section of Vascular and Interventional Radiology, Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, St. Louis, Missouri.
authors.forename: Abouelmagd
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Makramalla
authors.forename: Darryl A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Zuckerman