title: Divorcing the Late Upper Palaeolithic demographic histories of mtDNA haplogroups M1 and U6 in Africa.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  A Southwest Asian origin and dispersal to North Africa in the Early Upper Palaeolithic era has been inferred in previous studies for mtDNA haplogroups M1 and U6. Both haplogroups have been proposed to show similar geographic patterns and shared demographic histories.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We report here 24 M1 and 33 U6 new complete mtDNA sequences that allow us to refine the existing phylogeny of these haplogroups. The resulting phylogenetic information was used to genotype a further 131 M1 and 91 U6 samples to determine the geographic spread of their sub-clades. No southwest Asian specific clades for M1 or U6 were discovered. U6 and M1 frequencies in North Africa, the Middle East and Europe do not follow similar patterns, and their sub-clade divisions do not appear to be compatible with their shared history reaching back to the Early Upper Palaeolithic. The Bayesian Skyline Plots testify to non-overlapping phases of expansion, and the haplogroups' phylogenies suggest that there are U6 sub-clades that expanded earlier than those in M1. Some M1 and U6 sub-clades could be linked with certain events. For example, U6a1 and M1b, with their coalescent ages of ~20,000-22,000 years ago and earliest inferred expansion in northwest Africa, could coincide with the flourishing of the Iberomaurusian industry, whilst U6b and M1b1 appeared at the time of the Capsian culture.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our high-resolution phylogenetic dissection of both haplogroups and coalescent time assessments suggest that the extant main branching pattern of both haplogroups arose and diversified in the mid-later Upper Palaeolithic, with some sub-clades concomitantly with the expansion of the Iberomaurusian industry. Carriers of these maternal lineages have been later absorbed into and diversified further during the spread of Afro-Asiatic languages in North and East Africa.
authors.affiliation: Estonian Biocentre and Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia. erwan@ebc.ee
authors.forename: Erwan
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Pennarun
authors.forename: Toomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Kivisild
authors.forename: Ene
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Metspalu
authors.forename: Mait
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Metspalu
authors.forename: Tuuli
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Reisberg
authors.forename: Jean-Paul
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Moisan
authors.forename: Doron M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Behar
authors.forename: Sacha C
authors.initials: SC
authors.lastname: Jones
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Villems
mesh_terms: D000349:Africa; D001499:Bayes Theorem; D004272:DNA, Mitochondrial / Q000235:genetics; D019143:Evolution, Molecular; D005828:Genetics, Population; D006239:Haplotypes; D006801:Humans; D010802:Phylogeny; D058974:Phylogeography; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA
chemical_list: D004272:DNA, Mitochondrial