title: Impact of social and technological distraction on pedestrian crossing behaviour: an observational study.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The objective of the present work was to study the impact of technological and social distraction on cautionary behaviours and crossing times in pedestrians.
  
  
  METHODS
  Pedestrians were observed at 20 high-risk intersections during 1 of 3 randomly assigned time windows in 2012. Observers recorded demographic and behavioural information, including use of a mobile device (talking on the phone, text messaging, or listening to music). We examined the association between distraction and crossing behaviours, adjusting for age and gender. All multivariate analyses were conducted with random effect logistic regression (binary outcomes) and random effect linear regression (continuous outcomes), accounting for clustering by site.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Observers recorded crossing behaviours for 1102 pedestrians. Nearly one-third (29.8%) of all pedestrians performed a distracting activity while crossing. Distractions included listening to music (11.2%), text messaging (7.3%) and using a handheld phone (6.2%). Text messaging, mobile phone use and talking with a companion increased crossing time. Texting pedestrians took 1.87 additional seconds (18.0%) to cross the average intersection (3.4 lanes), compared to undistracted pedestrians. Texting pedestrians were 3.9 times more likely than undistracted pedestrians to display at least 1 unsafe crossing behaviour (disobeying the lights, crossing mid-intersection, or failing to look both ways). Pedestrians listening to music walked more than half a second (0.54) faster across the average intersection than undistracted pedestrians.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Distracting activity is common among pedestrians, even while crossing intersections. Technological and social distractions increase crossing times, with text messaging associated with the highest risk. Our findings suggest the need for intervention studies to reduce risk of pedestrian injury.
authors.affiliation: Harborview Injury Prevention & Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98104-2499, USA.
authors.forename: Leah L
authors.initials: LL
authors.lastname: Thompson
authors.forename: Frederick P
authors.initials: FP
authors.lastname: Rivara
authors.forename: Rajiv C
authors.initials: RC
authors.lastname: Ayyagari
authors.forename: Beth E
authors.initials: BE
authors.lastname: Ebel
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D001288:Attention; D040421:Cell Phone / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009146:Music; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012309:Risk-Taking; D012449:Safety / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D060145:Text Messaging / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D013997:Time Factors; D016138:Walking / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D014861:Washington / Q000453:epidemiology; D055815:Young Adult