title: Implications of maternal vitamin D deficiency for the fetus, the neonate and the young infant.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  It has recently been demonstrated that vitamin D (VD) deficiency during pregnancy and lactation can give rise to problems in mothers and their children.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To discuss the implications of VD deficiency during pregnancy and the best VD supplementation to use in order to avoid risks for the mother and child.
  
  
  METHODS
  PubMed was used to select all of the clinical studies published in the last 15 years concerning VD deficiency in pregnant women and its impact on the fetuses, neonates and infants, as well as the use of VD supplementation during pregnancy.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Several studies have suggested that VD deficiency is associated with possible major outcomes in the preconception period, during pregnancy, perinatally and in childhood. A 25(OH)D concentration of >32 and <50-60 ng/mL seems to be associated with the lowest risk of disease, and the administration of 2,000 IU/day to pregnant and breastfeeding women seems to maintain adequate 25(OH)D levels. However, not all the experts agree with these conclusions because some of them do not think that VD deficiency can really cause extraskeletal manifestations and consider that the traditionally suggested 400-600 IU/day can be enough to permit an adequate bone development.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Despite an increasing amount of data seems to suggest that pregnant women need a greater amount of VD than recommended in the past, further studies are needed to determine how much VD has to be given to assure a regular evolution of the pregnancy and an adequate development of the fetus and the young child.
authors.affiliation: Pediatric Clinic 1, Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi di Milano, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Via Commenda 9, 20122, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Nicola
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Principi
authors.forename: Sonia
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Bianchini
authors.forename: Elena
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Baggi
authors.forename: Susanna
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Esposito
mesh_terms: D002657:Child Development; D019587:Dietary Supplements / Q000009:adverse effects; D005260:Female; D047109:Fetal Development; D017408:Guidelines as Topic; D006293:Health Promotion; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007774:Lactation; D008297:Male; D039382:Maternal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; D018673:Nutrition Policy; D009751:Nutritional Requirements; D011247:Pregnancy; D011248:Pregnancy Complications / Q000178:diet therapy / Q000378:metabolism / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000517:prevention & control; D014807:Vitamin D / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000378:metabolism / Q000627:therapeutic use; D014808:Vitamin D Deficiency / Q000178:diet therapy / Q000378:metabolism / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000517:prevention & control
chemical_list: D014807:Vitamin D