title: The effects of malaria and HIV co-infection on hemoglobin levels among pregnant women in Sekondi-Takoradi, Ghana.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To assess the burden of maternal malaria and HIV among pregnant women in Ghana and to determine the risk of anemia among women with dual infection.
  
  
  METHODS
  A cross-sectional study was conducted at 4 hospitals in the Sekondi-Takoradi metropolis, Ghana. The study group comprised 872 consenting pregnant women attending prenatal care clinics. Venous blood samples were screened for malaria, HIV, and hemoglobin level. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to determine the association between malaria, HIV, and risk of anemia.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In all, 34.4% of the study cohort had anemia. Multivariate logistic regression analysis indicated that pregnant women with either malaria (odds ratio 1.99; 95% confidence interval, 1.43-2.77; P=<0.001) or HIV (odds ratio 1.78; 95% confidence interval, 1.13-2.80; P=0.014) had an increased risk of anemia. In adjusted models, pregnant women co-infected with both malaria and HIV displayed twice the risk of anemia. The adjusted odds ratio was 2.67 (95% confidence interval, 1.44-4.97; P=0.002).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Pregnant women infected with both malaria and HIV are twice as likely to be anemic than women with a single infection or no infection. Measures to control malaria, HIV, and anemia during pregnancy are imperative to improve birth outcomes in this region of Ghana.
authors.affiliation: Department of Internal Medicine, Effia-Nkwanta Regional Hospital Sekondi-Takoradi, Sekondi-Takoradi, Ghana.
authors.forename: Verner N
authors.initials: VN
authors.lastname: Orish
authors.forename: Onyekachi S
authors.initials: OS
authors.lastname: Onyeabor
authors.forename: Johnson N
authors.initials: JN
authors.lastname: Boampong
authors.forename: Samuel
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Acquah
authors.forename: Adekunle O
authors.initials: AO
authors.lastname: Sanyaolu
authors.forename: Nnaemeka C
authors.initials: NC
authors.lastname: Iriemenam
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000740:Anemia / Q000097:blood / Q000209:etiology*; D015331:Cohort Studies; D060085:Coinfection; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005260:Female; D005869:Ghana; D006678:HIV; D015658:HIV Infections / Q000097:blood / Q000150:complications*; D006454:Hemoglobins / Q000032:analysis*; D006801:Humans; D016015:Logistic Models; D008288:Malaria / Q000097:blood / Q000150:complications* / Q000517:prevention & control; D016778:Malaria, Falciparum / Q000097:blood / Q000150:complications / Q000517:prevention & control; D011247:Pregnancy; D011251:Pregnancy Complications, Infectious; D015597:Pregnancy Complications, Parasitic; D012307:Risk Factors; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D006454:Hemoglobins