title: [Microbubbles: current state and future prospects].
abstract: Contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) represents one of the most interesting applications of traditional medical sonography. Ultrasound contrast agents are classified into first- and second-generation agents depending on the gas (nitrogen, perfluorocarbon or sulfur hexafluoride) in the microbubbles. Both generations are characterized by an excellent safety profile, with low hepatic and renal toxicity and rare central nervous system reactions. The respiratory and hepatic elimination of the gases explains the low nephrotoxicity. CEUS has been successfully employed in drug and gene delivery. Indeed, new molecules such as liposomes, micelles and perfluorocarbon nanoparticles have been recently proposed as ultrasound contrast agents. Possible future applications of liposomes are the treatment of hypertension complications (given the possibility to fill them with nitric oxide), the treatment of cerebral disease with xenon, and the treatment of breast and liver cancer with doxorubicin. Micelles have been demonstrated to be effective in cancer treatment as well. Finally, perfluorocarbon nanoparticles can be used in oncological settings and in pancreatic islet transplantation in patients with type I diabetes.
authors.affiliation: U.O.C. Nefrologia e Dialisi, Ospedale San Giovanni di Dio, Agrigento, Italy. antonio.granata4@tin.it
authors.forename: Antonio
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Granata
authors.forename: Fulvio
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Floccari
authors.forename: Giuseppe
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Daidone
authors.forename: Viviana R
authors.initials: VR
authors.lastname: Scarfia
authors.forename: Luca
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Di Lullo
authors.forename: Antonio
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Basile
authors.forename: Giorgio
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Battaglia
authors.forename: Fulvio
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Fiorini
mesh_terms: D003287:Contrast Media; D005544:Forecasting; D006801:Humans; D055595:Mechanical Phenomena; D045423:Microbubbles; D014463:Ultrasonography / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends*
chemical_list: D003287:Contrast Media