title: Inequalities in reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health in Vietnam: a retrospective study of survey data for 1997-2006.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Vietnam has achieved considerable success in economic development, poverty reduction, and health over a relatively short period of time. However, there is concern that inequalities in health outcomes and intervention coverage are widening. This study explores if inequalities in reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health and nutrition changed over time in Vietnam in 1997-2006, and if inequalities were different depending on the type of stratifying variable used to measure inequalities and on the type of outcome studied.
  
  
  METHODS
  Using data from four nationally representative household surveys conducted in 1997-2006, we study inequalities in reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health and nutrition outcomes and intervention coverage by computing concentration indices by living standards, maternal education, ethnicity, region, urban/rural residence, and sex of child.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Inequalities in maternal, newborn and child health persisted in 1997-2006. Inequalities were largest by living standards, but not trivial by the other stratifying variables. Inequalities in health outcomes generally increased over time, while inequalities in intervention coverage generally declined. The most equitably distributed interventions were family planning, exclusive breastfeeding, and immunizations. The most inequitably distributed interventions were those requiring multiple service contacts, such as four or more antenatal care visits, and those requiring significant support from the health system, such as skilled birth attendance.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Three main policy implications emerge. First, persistent inequalities suggest the need to address financial and other access barriers, for example by subsidizing health care for the poor and ethnic minorities and by support from other sectors, for example in strengthening transportation networks. This should be complemented by careful monitoring and evaluation of current program design and implementation to ensure effective and efficient use of resources. Second, greater inequalities for interventions that require multiple service contacts imply that inequalities could be reduced by strengthening information and service provision by community and village health workers to promote and sustain timely care-seeking. Finally, larger inequalities for interventions that require a fully functioning health system suggest that investments in health facilities and human resources, particularly in areas that are disproportionately inhabited by the poor and ethnic minorities, may contribute to reducing inequalities.
authors.affiliation: The Partnership for Maternal, Newborn & Child Health (PMNCH), hosted by the World Health Organization, Avenue Appia 20, Geneva 27, 1211, Switzerland. axelsonh@who.int
authors.forename: Henrik
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Axelson
authors.forename: Ulf-G
authors.initials: UG
authors.lastname: Gerdtham
authors.forename: Björn
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Ekman
authors.forename: Thi Phuong Hoa
authors.initials: TP
authors.lastname: Dinh
authors.forename: Tobias
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Alfvén
mesh_terms: D002648:Child; D002669:Child Welfare / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D002675:Child, Preschool; D054624:Health Status Disparities; D006306:Health Surveys; D054625:Healthcare Disparities / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007226:Infant Mortality; D007229:Infant Welfare / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D008297:Male; D008429:Maternal Welfare / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D009752:Nutritional Status; D060728:Reproductive Health / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D014744:Vietnam / Q000453:epidemiology