title: Biocides--resistance, cross-resistance mechanisms and assessment.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Antibiotic resistance in bacterial pathogens has increased worldwide leading to treatment failures. Concerns have been raised about the use of biocides as a contributing factor to the risk of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) development. In vitro studies demonstrating increase in resistance have often been cited as evidence for increased risks. It is therefore important to understand the mechanisms of resistance employed by bacteria toward biocides used in consumer products and their potential to impart cross-resistance to therapeutic antibiotics.
  
  
  METHODS
  In this review, the mechanisms of resistance and cross-resistance reported in the literature toward biocides commonly used in consumer products are summarized. The physiological and molecular techniques used in describing and examining these mechanisms are reviewed and application of these techniques for systematic assessment of biocides for their potential to develop resistance and/or cross-resistance is discussed.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The guidelines in the usage of biocides in household or industrial purpose should be monitored and regulated to avoid the emergence of any MDR strains. The genetic and molecular methods to monitor the resistance development to biocides should be developed and included in preclinical and clinical studies.
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Centre for Infectious Disease Research and Biosafety Laboratories, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India.
authors.forename: Divya Prakash
authors.initials: DP
authors.lastname: Gnanadhas
authors.forename: Sandhya Amol
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Marathe
authors.forename: Dipshikha
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Chakravortty
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000145:classification / Q000494:pharmacology*; D001419:Bacteria / Q000187:drug effects / Q000235:genetics / Q000648:ultrastructure; D018441:Biofilms / Q000187:drug effects / Q000254:growth & development; D004202:Disinfectants / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000145:classification / Q000494:pharmacology*; D004352:Drug Resistance, Microbial / Q000235:genetics; D022761:Gene Transfer, Horizontal; D006801:Humans; D008855:Microscopy, Electron, Scanning; D046529:Microscopy, Electron, Transmission; D013329:Structure-Activity Relationship
chemical_list: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents; D004202:Disinfectants