title: A pioneer work on electric brain stimulation in psychotic patients. Rudolph Gottfried Arndt and his 1870s studies.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Today's brain stimulation methods are commonly traced back historically to surgical brain operations. With this one-sided historical approach it is easy to overlook the fact that non-surgical electrical brain-stimulating applications preceded present-day therapies.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The first study on transcranial electrical brain stimulation for the treatment of severe mental diseases in a larger group of patients was carried out in the 1870s.
  
  
  METHODS
  Between 1870 and 1878 German psychiatrist Rudolph Gottfried Arndt published the results of his studies in three reports. These are contextualized with contemporary developments of the time, focusing in particular on the (neuro-) sciences. As was common practice at the time, Arndt basically reported individual cases in which electricity was applied to treat severe psychoses with depressive symptoms or even catatonia, hypochondriac delusion and melancholia. Despite their lengthiness, there is frequently a lack of precise physical data on the application of psychological-psychopathological details. Only his 1878 report includes general rules for electrical brain stimulation.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Despite their methodological shortcomings and lack of precise treatment data impeding exact understanding, Arndt's studies are pioneering works in the field of electric brain stimulation with psychoses and its positive impacts. Today's transcranial direct current stimulation, and partly vagus nerve stimulation, can be compared with Arndt's methods. Although Arndt's only tangible results were indications for the application of faradic electricity (for inactivity, stupor, weakness and manic depressions) and galvanic current (for affective disorders and psychoses), a historiography of present-day brain stimulation therapies should no longer neglect studies on electrotherapy published in German and international psychiatric and neurological journals and monographs in the 1870s and 1880s.
authors.affiliation: Archives for the History of Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany. holger.steinberg@medizin.uni-leipzig.de
authors.forename: Holger
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Steinberg
mesh_terms: D004599:Electric Stimulation Therapy / Q000266:history*; D049672:History, 19th Century; D006801:Humans; D011618:Psychotic Disorders / Q000628:therapy*