title: Edible ice in Jakarta, Indonesia, is contaminated with multidrug-resistant Vibrio cholerae with virulence potential.
abstract: Consumption of street food is considered a major health risk in the absence of public-health inspection programmes in Indonesia. It is hypothesized that ice used in street food could be one of the major sources of Vibrio cholerae contamination. This study documented V. cholerae contamination in edible ice from different areas of Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia, and attempted to characterize the virulence potential of the strains. A selective medium was used to isolate 98 V. cholerae strains and their identity was confirmed using biochemical assays. Serological tests classified the majority (78%) in the non-O1 serogroup. Multiplex PCR was used to detect the presence of V. cholerae virulence genes, namely ctxA, ompU, tcpA, ace, zot and toxR. The toxR, ctxA, ompU and zot genes were detected in 75, 26, 15 and 1% of isolates, respectively. The ace and tcpA genes were not detected in any of the isolates. The ctxA gene encoding the cholera toxin subunit A, which has been associated only with clinical strains of O1, here was present in both serogroups. The antibiotic-resistance profile showed that 65, 60, 52, 39, 37, 19 and 3% of the isolates were resistant to ampicillin, streptomycin, kanamycin, sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, erythromycin, tetracycline and ciprofloxacin, respectively. A large proportion of V. cholerae isolates came from west and south Jakarta, and these strains exhibited multidrug resistance to ampicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline, erythromycin, kanamycin and sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim. Many of these isolates from west and south Jakarta also harboured toxR, encoding a regulator, and ctxA. The presence of multidrug-resistant V. cholerae with virulence genes in edible ice, which could cause a severe outbreak, reflects the poor water quality in Jakarta, and indicates an urgent need for better surveillance and management.
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Biotechnology, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia.
authors.forename: Diana E
authors.initials: DE
authors.lastname: Waturangi
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Biotechnology, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia.
authors.forename: Melissa
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Wennars
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Biotechnology, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia.
authors.forename: Magda X
authors.initials: MX
authors.lastname: Suhartono
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Biotechnology, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia.
authors.forename: Yenata F
authors.initials: YF
authors.lastname: Wijaya
mesh_terms: D002771:Cholera / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology*; D024901:Drug Resistance, Multiple, Bacterial; D005506:Food Contamination; D005516:Food Microbiology; D006801:Humans; D007053:Ice; D007214:Indonesia / Q000453:epidemiology; D012307:Risk Factors; D059467:Transcriptome; D014734:Vibrio cholerae / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000235:genetics / Q000472:pathogenicity*; D014774:Virulence; D014871:Water Microbiology
chemical_list: D007053:Ice