title: Effects of smoking abstinence on smoking-reinforced responding, withdrawal, and cognition in adults with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have a more difficult time quitting smoking compared to their non-ADHD peers. Little is known about the underlying behavioral mechanisms associated with this increased risk.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  This study aims to assess the effects of 24-h smoking abstinence in adult smokers with and without ADHD on the following outcomes: smoking-reinforced responding, withdrawal, and cognitive function.
  
  
  METHODS
  Thirty-three (n = 16 with ADHD, 17 without ADHD) adult smokers (more than or equal to ten cigarettes/day) were enrolled. Each participant completed two experimental sessions: one following smoking as usual and one following biochemically verified 24-h smoking abstinence. Smoking-reinforced responding measured via a progressive ratio task, smoking withdrawal measured via questionnaire, and cognition measured via a continuous performance test (CPT) were assessed at each session.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Smoking abstinence robustly increased responding for cigarette puffs in both groups, and ADHD smokers responded more for puffs regardless of condition. Males in both groups worked more for cigarette puffs and made more commission errors on the CPT than females, regardless of condition. Smoking abstinence also increased ratings of withdrawal symptoms in both groups and smokers with ADHD, regardless of condition, reported greater symptoms of arousal, habit withdrawal, and somatic complaints. Across groups, smoking abstinence decreased inhibitory control and increased reaction time variability on the CPT. Abstinence-induced changes in inhibitory control and negative affect significantly predicted smoking-reinforced responding across groups.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Smokers with ADHD reported higher levels of withdrawal symptoms and worked more for cigarette puffs, regardless of condition, which could help explain higher levels of nicotine dependence and poorer cessation outcomes in this population. Abstinence-induced changes in smoking-reinforced responding are associated with changes in inhibitory control and negative affect regardless of ADHD status, a finding that may lead to novel prevention and treatment programs.
authors.affiliation: Duke ADHD Program, Department of Psychiatry, Duke University School of Medicine, 2608 Erwin Road, Pavilion East, Suite 300, Durham, NC 27705, USA. scott.kollins@duke.edu
authors.forename: Scott H
authors.initials: SH
authors.lastname: Kollins
authors.forename: Joseph S
authors.initials: JS
authors.lastname: English
authors.forename: Michelle E
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: Roley
authors.forename: Benjamin
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: O'Brien
authors.forename: Justin
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Blair
authors.forename: Scott D
authors.initials: SD
authors.lastname: Lane
authors.forename: F Joseph
authors.initials: FJ
authors.lastname: McClernon
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology*; D003071:Cognition / Q000502:physiology; D056344:Executive Function / Q000502:physiology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D010775:Photic Stimulation / Q000379:methods; D011597:Psychomotor Performance / Q000502:physiology; D012054:Reinforcement, Psychology; D012907:Smoking / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology*; D016540:Smoking Cessation / Q000523:psychology*; D013375:Substance Withdrawal Syndrome / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology*; D055815:Young Adult