title: Double trouble: restrained eaters do not eat less and feel worse.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  While high levels of dietary restraint do not appear to reflect actual caloric restraint, it has been found to be a risk factor for a wide array of maladaptive eating patterns. These findings raise the question what, if not caloric restriction, dietary restraint entails. We propose that the very finding that restrained eaters do not eat less than they intend to do can provide an answer. Based on this disparity between the intention to restrain oneself and actual behaviour, we therefore hypothesised that high levels of restraint are associated with eating-related guilt.
  
  
  METHODS
  Three studies (N = 148) using unobtrusive measures of food intake; different restraint scales; and different measures of guilt tested whether restraint is related to eating-related guilt.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Results indicated that restraint was not associated with food intake, but instead was associated with increased levels of guilt after eating. Guilt was explicitly related to food intake. Moreover, the observed guilt could not be attributed to a general increase in negative affect.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results of these studies suggest that restraint is not an indicator of actual restricted food intake, but rather a reflection concerns about food and eating manifested in eating-related guilt.
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands. J.C.deWittHuberts@uu.nl
authors.forename: Jessie C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: de Witt Huberts
authors.forename: Catharine
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Evers
authors.forename: Denise T D
authors.initials: DT
authors.lastname: de Ridder
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D031204:Caloric Restriction; D002149:Energy Intake; D005247:Feeding Behavior / Q000523:psychology*; D001068:Feeding and Eating Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology; D005260:Female; D006167:Guilt; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D055815:Young Adult