title: Urban-rural differences in BMI in low- and middle-income countries: the role of socioeconomic status.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Urbanization is often cited as a main cause of increasing BMIs in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), and urban residents in LMICs tend to have higher BMIs than do rural residents. However, urban-rural differences may be driven by differences in socioeconomic status (SES).
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  Using nationally representative data collected at 2 time points in 38 LMICs, we assessed the association between urban residence and BMI before and after adjustment for measures of individual- and household-level SES.
  
  
  METHODS
  We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of nationally representative samples of 678,471 nonpregnant women aged 15-49 y, with 225,312 women in the earlier round of surveys conducted between 1991 and 2004 and 453,159 women in the later round conducted between 1998 and 2010. We used linear and ordered multinomial analysis with a country fixed effect to obtain a pooled estimate and a country-stratified analysis.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We found that mean BMI (kg/m²) in less-developed countries was generally higher within urban areas (excess BMI associated with urban residence before wealth index adjustment: 1.55; 95% CI: 1.52, 1.57). However, the urban association was attenuated after SES was accounted for (association after adjustment: 0.44; 95% CI: 0.41, 0.47). Individual- and household-level SES measures were independently and positively associated with BMI.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The association between urban residence and obesity in LMICs is driven largely by higher individual- and community-level SES in urban areas, which suggests that urban residence alone may not cause increased body weight in developing countries.
authors.affiliation: Departments of Society, Human Development, and Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA. mneuman@hsph.harvard.edu
authors.forename: Melissa
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Neuman
authors.forename: Ichiro
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Kawachi
authors.forename: Steven
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Gortmaker
authors.forename: S V
authors.initials: SV
authors.lastname: Subramanian
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D015992:Body Mass Index; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D003906:Developing Countries; D005191:Family Characteristics; D005260:Female; D006306:Health Surveys; D006801:Humans; D008875:Middle Aged; D009765:Obesity / Q000191:economics / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology*; D050177:Overweight / Q000191:economics / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology*; D015995:Prevalence; D012111:Residence Characteristics; D012423:Rural Health / Q000191:economics; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D014504:Urban Health / Q000191:economics; D014507:Urbanization; D055815:Young Adult