title: The effects of Doppler broadening and detector resolution on the performance of three-stage Compton cameras.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The authors investigated how the characteristics of the detectors used in a three-stage Compton camera (CC) affect the CC's ability to accurately measure the emission distribution and energy spectrum of prompt gammas (PG) emitted by nuclear de-excitations during proton therapy. The detector characteristics they studied included the material (high-purity germanium [HPGe] and cadmium zinc telluride [CZT]), Doppler broadening (DB), and resolution (lateral, depth, and energy).
  
  
  METHODS
  The authors simulated three-stage HPGe and CZT CCs of various configurations, detecting gammas from point sources with energies ranging from 0.511 to 7.12 MeV. They also simulated a proton pencil beam irradiating a tissue target to study how the detector characteristics affect the PG data measured by CCs in a clinical proton therapy setting. They used three figures of merit: the distance of closest approach (DCA) and the point of closest approach (PCA) between the measured and actual position of the PG emission origin, and the calculated energy resolution.
  
  
  RESULTS
  For CCs with HPGe detectors, DB caused the DCA to be greater than 3 mm for 14% of the 6.13 MeV gammas and 20% of the 0.511 MeV gammas. For CCs with CZT detectors, DB caused the DCA to be greater than 3 mm for 18% of the 6.13 MeV gammas and 25% of the 0.511 MeV gammas. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the PCA in the ẑ direction for HPGe and CZT detectors ranged from 1.3 to 0.4 mm for gammas with incident energy ranging from 0.511 to 7.12 MeV. For CCs composed of HPGe detectors, the resolution of incident gamma energy calculated by the CC ranged from 6% to 1% for gammas with true incident energies from 0.511 to 7.12 MeV. For CCs composed of CZT detectors, the resolution of gamma energy calculated by the CC ranged from 10% to 1% for gammas with true incident energies from 0.511 to 7.12 MeV. For HPGe and CZT CCs in which all detector effect were included, the DCA was less than 3 mm for 75% and 68% of the detected gammas, respectively, and restricting gammas to those having energy greater than 2.0 MeV increased these percentages to 83% and 77% for HPGe and CZT, respectively. Distributions of the true gamma origins and the PCA after detector characteristics had been included showed good agreement on beam range and some loss of resolution for the lateral profile of the PG emission. Characteristic energy lines were evident in the calculated gamma energy spectrum.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The authors found the following: (1) DB is the dominant source of spatial and energy resolution loss in the CCs at all energy levels; (2) the largest difference in the spatial resolution of HPGe and CZT CCs is that the spatial resolution distributions of CZT have broader tails. The differences in the FWHM of these distributions are small; (3) the energy resolution of both HPGe and CZT three-stage CCs is adequate for PG spectroscopy; and (4) restricting the gammas to those having energy greater than 2.0 MeV can improve the achievable image resolution.
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiation Physics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA.
authors.forename: Dennis
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Mackin
authors.forename: Jerimy
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Polf
authors.forename: Steve
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Peterson
authors.forename: Sam
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Beddar
mesh_terms: D015902:Gamma Cameras; D009010:Monte Carlo Method; D061766:Proton Therapy / Q000295:instrumentation*; D012449:Safety