title: Postconcussion syndrome: a review of pathophysiology and potential nonpharmacological approaches to treatment.
abstract: The incidence of all-cause concussions in the United States is estimated to range from 1.6 to 3.8 million annually, with the reported number of sport- or recreation-related concussions increasing dramatically, especially in youth sports.(1,2) Additionally, the use of roadside bombs in Iraq and Afghanistan has propelled the incidence of concussion and other traumatic brain injuries to the highest levels ever encountered by the US military. As a result, there has also been a marked increase in postconcussion syndrome (PCS) and the associated cognitive, emotional, and memory disabilities associated with the condition. Unfortunately, however, there have been no significant advancements in the understanding or treatment of PCS for decades. The current management of PCS mainly consists of rest, reduction of sensory inputs, and treating symptoms as needed. Recently, researchers investigating the underlying mechanisms of PCS have proposed that activation of the immune inflammatory response may be an underlying pathophysiology that occurs in those who experience prolonged symptoms after a concussion. This article reviews the literature and summarizes the immune inflammatory response known as immunoexcitotoxicity. This article also discusses the use of nonpharmacological agents for the management of PCS that directly address this underlying mechanism.
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. maroonjc@upmc.edu
authors.forename: Joseph C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Maroon
authors.forename: Darren B
authors.initials: DB
authors.lastname: Lepere
authors.forename: Russell L
authors.initials: RL
authors.lastname: Blaylock
authors.forename: Jeffrey W
authors.initials: JW
authors.lastname: Bost
mesh_terms: D001265:Athletic Injuries; D001924:Brain Concussion / Q000150:complications* / Q000503:physiopathology; D006801:Humans; D038223:Post-Concussion Syndrome / Q000209:etiology* / Q000503:physiopathology*; D013178:Sports Medicine / Q000379:methods*