title: Nanoparticle-based evaluation of blood-brain barrier leakage during the foreign body response.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The brain foreign body response (FBR) is an important process that limits the functionality of electrodes that comprise the brain-machine interface. Associated events in this process include leakage of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), reactive astrogliosis, recruitment and activation of microglia, and neuronal degeneration. Proper BBB function is also integral to maintaining neuronal health and function. Previous attempts to characterize BBB integrity have shown homogeneous leakage of macromolecules up to 10 nm in size. In this study, we describe a new method of measuring BBB permeability during the foreign body response in a mouse model.
  
  
  METHODS
  Fluorescent nanoparticles were delivered via the tail vein into implant-bearing mice. Tissue sections were then analyzed using fluorescence microscopy to observe nanoparticles in the tissue. Gold nanoparticles were also used in conjunction with TEM to confirm the presence of nanoparticles in the brain parenchyma.
  
  
  RESULTS
  By using polymer nanoparticle tracers, which are significantly larger than conventional macromolecular tracers, we show near-implant BBB gaps of up to 500 nm in size that persist for at least 4 weeks after implantation. Further characterization of the BBB illustrates that leakage during the brain FBR is heterogeneous with gaps between at least 10 and 500 nm. Moreover, electron microscopy was used to confirm that the nanoparticle tracers enter into the brain parenchyma near chronic brain implants.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Taken together, our findings demonstrate that the FBR-induced BBB leakage is characterized by larger gaps and is of longer duration than previously thought. This technique can be applied to examine the BBB in other disease states as well as during induced, transient, BBB opening.
authors: Department of Pathology, Yale School of Medicine, 310 Cedar Street LH 108, New Haven, CT 06520-8023, USA.
authors: Andrew J
authors: AJ
authors: Sawyer
authors: Themis R
authors: TR
authors: Kyriakides
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001812:Blood-Brain Barrier / Q000378:metabolism / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000648:ultrastructure; D002199:Capillary Permeability / Q000502:physiology*; D005456:Fluorescent Dyes; D005549:Foreign-Body Reaction / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000378:metabolism / Q000503:physiopathology*; D051379:Mice; D057507:Mice, 129 Strain; D008810:Mice, Inbred C57BL; D053758:Nanoparticles
chemical_list: D005456:Fluorescent Dyes