title: Visual performance and the ocular surface in traumatic brain injury.
abstract: The pathophysiology of neurotrauma is reviewed and an original study investigating the prevalence of dry eye disease in a sample of veterans with traumatic brain injury (TBI) is presented. Fifty-three veterans with TBI were evaluated by history of injury, past ocular history, and medication use. Ocular Disease Surface Index (OSDI), ocular examination, cranial nerve evaluation, tear osmolarity, tear film break-up time (TFBUT), ocular surface staining and tear production testing were performed. A matched comparison group underwent similar testing. TBI causes were blast (44) or non-blast (9). TBI subjects scored significantly worse on the OSDI (P<.001), and ocular surface staining by Oxford scale (P<.001) than non-TBI subjects. Scores for tear film breakup (P=.6), basal tear production less than 3 mm (P=.13), and tear osmolarity greater than 314 mOsm/L (P=.15) were all higher in TBI subjects; significantly more TBI subjects had at least one abnormal dry eye measure than comparisons (P<.001). The OSDI related to presence of dry eye symptoms (P<.01). These effects were present in both blast and non-blast TBI. Seventy percent of TBI subjects were taking at least one medication in the following classes: antidepressant, atypical antipsychotic, anticonvulsant, or h1-antihistamine. There was no association between any medication class and the OSDI or dry eye measures. Reduced corneal sensation in 21 TBI subjects was not associated with OSDI, tear production, or TFBUT, but did correlate with reduced tear osmolarity (P=.05). History of refractive surgery, previous contact lens wear, facial nerve weakness, or meibomian gland dysfunction was not associated with DED. In summary, we found a higher prevalence of DED in subjects with TBI, both subjectively and objectively. This effect is unrelated to medication use, and it may persist for months to years. We recommend that patients with TBI from any cause be evaluated for DED using a battery of standard testing methods described in a protocol presented in this article. Further research into the pathophysiology and outcomes of DED in neurotrauma is needed.
authors: Department of Ophthalmology, Veterans Administration Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA. glenn.cockerham@va.gov
authors: Glenn C
authors: GC
authors: Cockerham
authors: Sonne
authors: S
authors: Lemke
authors: Catherine
authors: C
authors: Glynn-Milley
authors: Lars
authors: L
authors: Zumhagen
authors: Kimberly P
authors: KP
authors: Cockerham
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001930:Brain Injuries / Q000150:complications*; D003229:Conjunctival Diseases / Q000209:etiology* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000534:rehabilitation; D003316:Corneal Diseases / Q000209:etiology* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000534:rehabilitation; D015352:Dry Eye Syndromes / Q000209:etiology* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000534:rehabilitation; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D008889:Military Personnel; D009994:Osmolar Concentration; D011788:Quality of Life; D013666:Tears / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism; D014481:United States; D014786:Vision Disorders / Q000209:etiology* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000534:rehabilitation; D055815:Young Adult