title: Regular breakfast consumption is associated with increased IQ in kindergarten children.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Studies have documented a positive relationship between regular breakfast consumption and cognitive outcomes in youth. However, most of these studies have emphasized specific measures of cognition rather than cognitive performance as a broad construct (e.g., IQ test scores) and have been limited to Western samples of school-age children and adolescents. This study aims to extend the literature on breakfast consumption and cognition by examining these constructs in a sample of Chinese kindergarten-age children.
  
  
  METHODS
  This cross-sectional study consisted of a sample of 1269 children (697 boys and 572 girls) aged 6 years from the Chinese city of Jintan. Cognition was assessed with the Chinese version of the Wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence-revised. Breakfast habits were assessed through parental questionnaire. Analyses of variance and linear regression models were used to analyze the association between breakfast habits and IQ. Socioeconomic and parental psychosocial variables related to intelligence were controlled for.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Findings showed that children who regularly have breakfast on a near-daily basis had significantly higher full scale, verbal, and performance IQ test scores (all p<0.001) compared to children who "sometimes" have breakfast. This relationship persisted for VIQ (verbal IQ) and FIQ (full IQ) even after adjusting for gender, current living location, parental education, parental occupation, and primary child caregiver.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Findings may reflect nutritional as well as social benefits of regular breakfast consumption on cognition, and regular breakfast consumption should be encouraged among young children.
authors: School of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA. jhliu@nursing.upenn.edu
authors: Jianghong
authors: J
authors: Liu
authors: Wei-Ting
authors: WT
authors: Hwang
authors: Barbra
authors: B
authors: Dickerman
authors: Charlene
authors: C
authors: Compher
mesh_terms: D062408:Breakfast / Q000502:physiology / Q000523:psychology*; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D002648:Child; D002656:Child Day Care Centers; D002675:Child, Preschool; D002681:China; D003071:Cognition; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007360:Intelligence; D007361:Intelligence Tests; D008297:Male
references: J Adolesc Health. 2005 Oct;37(4):313-22
references: 16182142
references: Appetite. 2009 Feb;52(1):1-7
references: 18789364
references: J Sch Health. 1982 Nov;52(9):529-34
references: 6925099
references: Int J Neurosci. 1994 Jan-Feb;74(1-4):109-15
references: 7928100
references: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1993;113(1):83-8
references: 7862833
references: Pediatrics. 2008 Aug;122(2):279-84
references: 18676544
references: Nutr Hosp. 2006 May-Jun;21(3):374-8
references: 16771121
references: J Pediatr. 2012 Sep;161(3):520-525.e2
references: 22521112
references: Child Care Health Dev. 2005 Jul;31(4):433-9
references: 15948880
references: Public Health Nutr. 2007 Apr;10(4):422-8
references: 17362539
references: Physiol Behav. 2006 Jan 30;87(1):16-23
references: 16225896
references: Pers Individ Dif. 2011 Aug 1;50(8):1222-1226
references: 21686316
references: Am J Health Promot. 2005 Sep-Oct;20(1):20-7
references: 16171157
references: Int J Food Sci Nutr. 1997 Jan;48(1):5-12
references: 9093544
references: Am J Psychiatry. 2004 Nov;161(11):2005-13
references: 15514400
references: Prev Med. 2009 Apr;48(4):372-7
references: 19232370
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 1998 Apr;67(4):772S-778S
references: 9537627
references: Prog Brain Res. 2010;185:105-29
references: 21075236
references: Br J Health Psychol. 2003 Nov;8(Pt 4):451-63
references: 14614792
references: New Dir Child Adolesc Dev. 2006 Spring;(111):51-66
references: 16646499
references: Adolescence. 1998 Winter;33(132):851-61
references: 9886013
references: Appetite. 2003 Dec;41(3):329-31
references: 14637332
references: Int J Epidemiol. 2010 Jun;39(3):668-74
references: 19433517
references: Environ Health. 2011 Apr 01;10:28
references: 21457535
references: Arch Latinoam Nutr. 2001 Mar;51(1):57-63
references: 11515233
references: Psychiatry Res. 2011 Aug 30;189(1):128-34
references: 21196050
references: Neuropsychologia. 1995 Jul;33(7):843-54
references: 7477812
references: Nutr Health. 1993;9(2):107-15
references: 8134024
references: Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1996 Oct;150(10):1089-92
references: 8859144
references: Int J Nurs Stud. 2011 Jul;48(7):904-13
references: 21601204
references: Curr Opin Pediatr. 2006 Oct;18(5):565-70
references: 16969174
references: Sleep Med. 2010 Apr;11(4):386-92
references: 20202902
references: PLoS One. 2010 Dec 08;5(12):e15213
references: 21170334
references: Future Child. 1999 Fall;9(2):30-44
references: 10646256
references: Physiol Behav. 2011 Jul 6;103(5):431-9
references: 21439306
references: Can J Public Health. 2003 Jan-Feb;94(1):41-4
references: 12583678
references: J Adolesc Health. 1991 Jan;12(1):53-7
references: 2007155
references: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1999 Aug;145(4):378-85
references: 10460314
references: Neuropsychologia. 1994 May;32(5):595-607
references: 8084417
references: Neurobiol Aging. 1996 Jan-Feb;17(1):123-30
references: 8786794
references: Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2002 Nov;53(6):519-28
references: 12590747
references: Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1992 Aug;17(4):391-9
references: 1438655
references: J Am Diet Assoc. 1999 Jan;99(1):54-7
references: 9917732
references: Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003 Dec;57(12):1569-78
references: 14647222
references: Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi. 1997 Jul;31(4):218-20
references: 9812581
references: Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003 Jul;57(7):842-53
references: 12821884
references: Nutr Res Rev. 2002 Jun;15(1):169-206
references: 19087403
references: Appetite. 2007 Jul;49(1):240-4
references: 17224202
references: Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003 Jun;157(6):593-600
references: 12796242
references: J Am Diet Assoc. 1985 Sep;85(9):1093-9
references: 4031326
references: Physiol Behav. 2005 Aug 7;85(5):635-45
references: 16085130
references: J Am Diet Assoc. 1995 Oct;95(10):1134-9
references: 7560685
references: J Res Adolesc. 2009 Mar;19(1):93-111
references: 22485069
references: Gen Physiol Biophys. 1983 Aug;2(4):313-24
references: 6381226
references: S Afr Med J. 1997 Jan;87(1 Suppl):93-100
references: 9180808
references: J Am Diet Assoc. 1993 Aug;93(8):886-91
references: 8335868
references: Br J Health Psychol. 2009 Sep;14(Pt 3):489-504
references: 18808734
references: J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2012 Jan;33(1):9-16
references: 22218013
references: J Am Diet Assoc. 2005 May;105(5):743-60; quiz 761-2
references: 15883552
references: J Psychiatr Res. 1982-1983;17(2):193-201
references: 6764937
references: Environ Health Perspect. 2005 Jul;113(7):894-9
references: 16002379
references: Public Health Nutr. 2009 Jan;12(1):19-28
references: 18346309
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 1995 Jan;61(1 Suppl):213S-220S
references: 7832168
references: Intelligence. 2012 Mar-Apr;40(2):139-144
references: 29416189