title: Structural and functional imaging studies in chronic cannabis users: a systematic review of adolescent and adult findings.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The growing concern about cannabis use, the most commonly used illicit drug worldwide, has led to a significant increase in the number of human studies using neuroimaging techniques to determine the effect of cannabis on brain structure and function. We conducted a systematic review to assess the evidence of the impact of chronic cannabis use on brain structure and function in adults and adolescents.
  
  
  METHODS
  Papers published until August 2012 were included from EMBASE, Medline, PubMed and LILACS databases following a comprehensive search strategy and pre-determined set of criteria for article selection. Only neuroimaging studies involving chronic cannabis users with a matched control group were considered.
  
  
  RESULTS
  One hundred and forty-two studies were identified, of which 43 met the established criteria. Eight studies were in adolescent population. Neuroimaging studies provide evidence of morphological brain alterations in both population groups, particularly in the medial temporal and frontal cortices, as well as the cerebellum. These effects may be related to the amount of cannabis exposure. Functional neuroimaging studies suggest different patterns of resting global and brain activity during the performance of several cognitive tasks both in adolescents and adults, which may indicate compensatory effects in response to chronic cannabis exposure.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  However, the results pointed out methodological limitations of the work conducted to date and considerable heterogeneity in the findings.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Chronic cannabis use may alter brain structure and function in adult and adolescent population. Further studies should consider the use of convergent methodology, prospective large samples involving adolescent to adulthood subjects, and data-sharing initiatives.
authors: Psychiatry, Institute of Neurosciences, Hospital Clínic, IDIBAPS, CIBERSAM, Barcelona, Spain.
authors: Albert
authors: A
authors: Batalla
authors: Sagnik
authors: S
authors: Bhattacharyya
authors: Murat
authors: M
authors: Yücel
authors: Paolo
authors: P
authors: Fusar-Poli
authors: Jose Alexandre
authors: JA
authors: Crippa
authors: Santiago
authors: S
authors: Nogué
authors: Marta
authors: M
authors: Torrens
authors: Jesús
authors: J
authors: Pujol
authors: Magí
authors: M
authors: Farré
authors: Rocio
authors: R
authors: Martin-Santos
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002186:Cannabinoids / Q000009:adverse effects*; D002188:Cannabis / Q000009:adverse effects*; D002531:Cerebellum / Q000187:drug effects / Q000473:pathology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D003071:Cognition / Q000187:drug effects; D016206:Databases, Bibliographic; D005260:Female; D005625:Frontal Lobe / Q000187:drug effects / Q000473:pathology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D002189:Marijuana Abuse / Q000209:etiology / Q000473:pathology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D059906:Neuroimaging / Q000379:methods; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D013702:Temporal Lobe / Q000187:drug effects / Q000473:pathology* / Q000503:physiopathology
chemical_list: D002186:Cannabinoids
references: Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011 Apr 1;114(2-3):242-5
references: 21050680
references: Neurotoxicol Teratol. 1995 Jan-Feb;17(1):25-30
references: 7708016
references: Biol Psychiatry. 2011 Mar 1;69(5):487-94
references: 20951979
references: Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012 Jan;69(1):27-36
references: 22213786
references: Brain Res. 1998 Jun 29;797(2):183-9
references: 9666122
references: Br J Psychiatry. 2011 Nov;199(5):386-90
references: 21903664
references: Braz J Psychiatry. 2010 May;32 Suppl 1:S31-40
references: 20512268
references: JAMA. 1977 Mar 21;237(12):1231-2
references: 576461
references: Brain. 2006 May;129(Pt 5):1096-112
references: 16585053
references: Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2008 Jan;1(1):81-98
references: 19630708
references: Mol Psychiatry. 2012 Dec;17(12):1152-5
references: 22290123
references: J Neurosci. 2008 Mar 5;28(10):2313-9
references: 18322078
references: Psychiatry Res. 2001 Oct 1;107(3):173-7
references: 11566433
references: J Psychopharmacol. 2012 Jan;26(1):144-9
references: 21890594
references: J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2010 Nov;35(6):409-12
references: 20731960
references: J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010 Jun;49(6):561-72, 572.e1-3
references: 20494266
references: Prog Neurobiol. 2010 Nov;92(3):370-85
references: 20624444
references: Neuroimage. 2011 Jul 1;57(1):69-75
references: 21349338
references: J Comp Neurol. 1997 Oct 20;387(2):167-78
references: 9336221
references: Hum Psychopharmacol. 2006 Jun;21(4):245-54
references: 16783814
references: PLoS Med. 2009 Jul 21;6(7):e1000097
references: 19621072
references: Neuroimage. 2005 Jun;26(2):480-92
references: 15907305
references: Mol Psychiatry. 2012 Jun;17(6):568-9
references: 22042229
references: Schizophr Res. 2011 Jul;129(2-3):169-71
references: 21459559
references: JAMA. 1977 Mar 21;237(12):1229-30
references: 576460
references: Biol Psychiatry. 2012 Apr 15;71(8):677-83
references: 22290115
references: Indian J Psychiatry. 2010 Jul;52(3):236-42
references: 21180408
references: Neuroimage. 2010 Jan 1;49(1):1133-43
references: 19631753
references: Lancet. 2007 Jul 28;370(9584):319-28
references: 17662880
references: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2010 May;209(4):361-74
references: 20300735
references: Neuroimage. 2008 Apr 15;40(3):1328-39
references: 18296071
references: Biol Psychiatry. 2007 Jun 1;61(11):1281-9
references: 17239356
references: Psychiatry Res. 2010 Jan 30;181(1):51-6
references: 19962862
references: Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011 May 1;115(1-2):43-50
references: 21115229
references: Neuroreport. 2000 Nov 27;11(17):3835-41
references: 11117500
references: Neuroscientist. 2007 Oct;13(5):422-32
references: 17901252
references: Neuroimage. 2010 Aug 15;52(2):429-35
references: 20417713
references: J Am Chem Soc. 1971 Jan 13;93(1):217-24
references: 5538858
references: Psychol Med. 2011 Nov;41(11):2349-59
references: 21466751
references: Neuroreport. 2003 Jun 11;14(8):1145-51
references: 12821798
references: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2011 Mar;36(4):827-36
references: 21150914
references: Addict Biol. 2008 Jun;13(2):253-63
references: 18482434
references: Hum Psychopharmacol. 2007 Apr;22(3):135-48
references: 17397099
references: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2009 Mar;92(1):105-10
references: 19032963
references: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2006 Apr;185(3):358-68
references: 16521034
references: Neurobiol Aging. 2005 Oct;26(9):1271-4; discussion 1275-8
references: 16006011
references: Addict Biol. 2013 May;18(3):570-80
references: 22264344
references: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2012 Feb;219(4):981-90
references: 21822593
references: Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2010 Aug 16;34(6):837-45
references: 20363277
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 Mar 9;107(10):4734-9
references: 20176931
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Jun 5;104(23):9800-5
references: 17535893
references: Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005 Jul;79(1):11-22
references: 15943940
references: Life Sci. 1997;60(23):2075-89
references: 9180362
references: Neuropsychologia. 2001;39(4):376-89
references: 11164876
references: J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1992 Sep;12(5):750-8
references: 1324250
references: J Psychopharmacol. 2011 Nov;25(11):1462-8
references: 20851843
references: Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009 Nov 1;105(1-2):139-53
references: 19656642
references: Behav Brain Res. 2011 Jun 20;220(1):164-72
references: 21310189
references: Behav Pharmacol. 2004 Sep;15(5-6):341-52
references: 15343057
references: Schizophr Res. 2011 May;128(1-3):66-75
references: 21420833
references: Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2009 Nov-Dec;31(6):349-55
references: 19631736
references: Psychiatry Res. 2008 May 30;163(1):40-51
references: 18356027
references: Stroke. 2011 Jun;42(6):1778-80
references: 21512186
references: Biol Psychiatry. 2012 Apr 15;71(8):684-92
references: 22129756
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 May 25;101(21):8174-9
references: 15148381
references: Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005 Aug 1;79(2):201-10
references: 16002029
references: Front Psychol. 2010 Dec 14;1:225
references: 21833280
references: Addiction. 2011 Mar;106(3):564-73
references: 21134014
references: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2004 Nov;176(3-4):239-47
references: 15205869
references: Psychiatry Res. 2011 Mar 31;191(3):201-11
references: 21334181
references: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004 Feb;29(2):417-26
references: 14583744
references: Am J Addict. 2005 Jan-Feb;14(1):64-72
references: 15804878
references: Addict Biol. 2009 Sep;14(4):457-68
references: 19650817
references: Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2008 Jun;65(6):694-701
references: 18519827
references: Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004 Dec 7;76(3):261-71
references: 15561477
references: Neuroreport. 2000 Feb 28;11(3):491-6
references: 10718301
references: Curr Pharm Des. 2012;18(32):5045-54
references: 22716136
references: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2007 Oct;194(2):173-83
references: 17558500
references: Brain Res. 1987 Dec 8;436(1):193-8
references: 2825925
references: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010 Jan;35(1):217-38
references: 19710631
references: J Addict Dis. 2000;19(1):1-22
references: 10772599
references: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010 Mar;35(4):967-75
references: 20010552
references: Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005 Jan 7;77(1):23-30
references: 15607838
references: Curr Pharm Des. 2009;15(22):2603-14
references: 19689331
references: Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2010 Mar;20(3):153-63
references: 20061126
references: Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2011 Nov;14(10):1377-88
references: 21489346
references: Actas Esp Psiquiatr. 2011 May-Jun;39(3):180-90
references: 21560079
references: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2008 Jan;196(1):119-31
references: 17899017
references: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010 Feb;1187:148-71
references: 20201852
references: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2011 Jun;36(7):1340-8
references: 21412224
references: Neurology. 2002 Nov 12;59(9):1337-43
references: 12427880
references: J Psychoactive Drugs. 1998 Apr-Jun;30(2):209-14
references: 9692384
references: Brain. 2012 Jul;135(Pt 7):2245-55
references: 22669080
references: Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2001 Sep-Oct;23(5):437-43
references: 11711246
references: Neuroimage. 2010 Oct 1;52(4):1521-7
references: 20451621
references: Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1989 Feb;79(2):118-28
references: 2923005
references: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004 Jun;1021:384-90
references: 15251914
references: J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2012 Feb;51(2):171-80
references: 22265363
references: J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001 Sep;40(9):1012-20
references: 11556624
references: J Psychoactive Drugs. 2010 Sep;42(3):401-12
references: 21053763
references: Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1999 Jul;100(1):67-75
references: 10442442
references: Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2008 Jun;1(2):114-23
references: 19630711
references: Lancet. 1971 Dec 4;2(7736):1219-24
references: 4143590
references: J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2007 Jun;48(6):592-600
references: 17537075
references: Psychol Addict Behav. 2007 Dec;21(4):478-87
references: 18072830
references: J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2012 Jun;119(6):701-7
references: 22160489
references: Brain. 2000 Nov;123 ( Pt 11):2189-202
references: 11050020
references: Mol Psychiatry. 2012 Jun;17(6):642-9
references: 21747398
references: Neuroimage. 2008 Jul 1;41(3):1067-74
references: 18424082
references: Harm Reduct J. 2006 May 09;3:17
references: 16684342
references: Addict Biol. 2013 Sep;18(5):851-4
references: 21955104
references: Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1991;241(2):88-90
references: 1834188
references: Psychiatry Res. 2009 Sep 30;173(3):228-37
references: 19699064
references: J Psychiatr Res. 2011 Aug;45(8):1055-66
references: 21296361
references: Psychiatry Res. 2011 Jan 30;191(1):51-9
references: 21145211
references: Subst Use Misuse. 2010 Sep;45(11):1787-808
references: 20590400
references: Front Behav Neurosci. 2012 May 25;6:22
references: 22654743
references: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2002 Jun;26(6):802-16
references: 12007751
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012 Oct 2;109(40):E2657-64
references: 22927402
references: Brain Res. 2010 Mar 4;1317:297-304
references: 20045399
references: Psychol Med. 2010 Mar;40(3):383-98
references: 19627647
references: JAMA. 2002 Mar 6;287(9):1123-31
references: 11879109
references: Neuroreport. 2000 Mar 20;11(4):749-53
references: 10757513
references: Psychiatry Res. 2005 Dec 30;140(3):271-80
references: 16290108
references: Ann Neurol. 1983 Feb;13(2):207-10
references: 6830182
references: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2008 May;197(4):549-56
references: 18270689
references: Schizophr Bull. 2011 Sep;37(5):1066-76
references: 20223841
references: Behav Brain Res. 2011 Oct 10;224(1):128-34
references: 21664935
references: Neuron. 2012 Jan 26;73(2):214-8
references: 22284177
references: Addict Biol. 2012 Nov;17(6):981-90
references: 21812871
references: Addiction. 2012 Jan;107(1):206-14
references: 21752141
references: Brain Cogn. 2010 Apr;72(3):347-54
references: 19932550
references: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2009 Feb;34(3):759-66
references: 18754005
references: Annu Rev Neurosci. 2006;29:37-76
references: 16776579
references: Synapse. 2005 Aug;57(2):113-5
references: 15906384
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Aug 4;106(31):13016-21
references: 19651613
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2012 Mar;24(3):588-99
references: 22066583
references: Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2010 May;13(4):421-32
references: 19775500
references: Psychiatry Res. 2002 Dec 30;116(3):173-85
references: 12477601
references: J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006 Summer;18(3):318-32
references: 16963581
references: Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2010 Jun;210(3):429-38
references: 20401748
references: J Neurosci. 2011 Dec 7;31(49):17923-31
references: 22159107
references: J Magn Reson Imaging. 2012 Jul;36(1):39-54
references: 22314879
references: Neuroimage. 2004 Nov;23(3):914-20
references: 15528091
references: Psychiatry Res. 2010 May 30;182(2):152-9
references: 20413277
references: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2012 Feb;37(3):618-29
references: 21956445
references: Neuroimage. 2012 Feb 15;59(4):3845-51
references: 21982932
references: Neuropsychol Rev. 2007 Sep;17(3):347-61
references: 17680367
references: Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2009 Feb;259(1):28-36
references: 19194646
references: Addict Behav. 2010 Jun;35(6):644-6
references: 20189314
references: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2008 Apr;33(5):1113-26
references: 17581536
references: Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009 Jan;66(1):95-105
references: 19124693
references: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2012 Jul;37(8):1923-33
references: 22534625
references: Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 2005 Apr;23(1):107-18
references: 15795138
references: Indian J Psychiatry. 2011 Jan;53(1):13-20
references: 21431002
references: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2003 Oct;28(10):1760-9
references: 12888772
references: Schizophr Res. 2011 May;128(1-3):91-7
references: 21388791
references: Biol Psychiatry. 1992 Jul 15;32(2):164-9
references: 1420630
references: Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2012 Feb;22(2):114-22
references: 21741803
references: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2009 Oct;34(11):2450-8
references: 19553917
references: Behav Brain Res. 2010 Dec 20;215(1):45-57
references: 20600341
references: Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2011 Jun;19(3):231-42
references: 21480730
references: Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Jul;163(7):1245-51
references: 16816231
references: Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011 Feb;68(2):148-57
references: 21041608
references: Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013 Feb 1;128(1-2):52-7
references: 22909787
references: Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2007 Mar;17(4):289-97
references: 17137758
references: Lancet. 2009 Oct 17;374(9698):1383-91
references: 19837255
references: Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2009 Oct;259(7):413-31
references: 19609589
references: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2007 Feb;86(2):189-99
references: 17222895
references: Psychiatry Res. 1991 May;40(1):69-78
references: 1658842
references: Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003 Apr 1;69(3):303-10
references: 12633916
references: J Addict Med. 2011 Mar;5(1):1-8
references: 21321675
references: Hum Brain Mapp. 2007 Dec;28(12):1276-86
references: 17274020
references: Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2006 Nov;14(4):422-8
references: 17115869
references: Schizophr Bull. 2009 Jul;35(4):668-74
references: 19487337
references: Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2010 Dec;20(12):855-65
references: 20863671
references: Life Sci. 1993;52(8):757-67
references: 8383270
references: J Psychiatr Res. 2009 Jan;43(3):189-204
references: 19111160
references: Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010 Sep 1;111(1-2):177-81
references: 20537813
references: Psychopharmacol Bull. 2009;42(2):75-88
references: 19629024
references: Neuroimage. 2009 Oct 15;48(1):186-90
references: 19539765
references: Brain Res. 1988 Mar 8;443(1-2):47-62
references: 2834017
references: Learn Mem. 2007 Jan 03;14(1-2):63-74
references: 17202425
references: Acta Neurol Scand. 1993 Mar;87(3):210-4
references: 8475692
references: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2002 May;72(1-2):237-50
references: 11900794
references: Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009 Apr;66(4):442-51
references: 19349314
references: Biol Psychiatry. 2008 Dec 1;64(11):966-73
references: 18589404
references: Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2012 Apr;15(3):297-307
references: 21557880
references: Psychiatry Res. 1996 May 31;67(1):29-38
references: 8797240