title: Eosinophils in fungus-associated allergic pulmonary disease.
abstract: Asthma is frequently caused and/or exacerbated by sensitization to fungal allergens, which are ubiquitous in many indoor and outdoor environments. Severe asthma with fungal sensitization is characterized by airway hyperresponsiveness and bronchial constriction in response to an inhaled allergen that is worsened by environmental exposure to airborne fungi and which leads to a disease course that is often very difficult to treat with standard asthma therapies. As a result of complex interactions among inflammatory cells, structural cells, and the intercellular matrix of the allergic lung, patients with sensitization to fungal allergens may experience a greater degree of airway wall remodeling and progressive, accumulated pulmonary dysfunction as part of the disease sequela. From their development in the bone marrow to their recruitment to the lung via chemokine and cytokine networks, eosinophils form an important component of the inflammatory milieu that is associated with this syndrome. Eosinophils are recognized as complex multi-factorial leukocytes with diverse functions in the context of allergic fungal asthma. In this review, we will consider recent advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that are associated with eosinophil development and migration to the allergic lung in response to fungal inhalation, along with the eosinophil's function in the immune response to and the immunopathology attributed to fungus-associated allergic pulmonary disease.
authors: Department of Veterinary and Microbiological Sciences, North Dakota State University Fargo, ND, USA.
authors: Sumit
authors: S
authors: Ghosh
authors: Scott A
authors: SA
authors: Hoselton
authors: Glenn P
authors: GP
authors: Dorsam
authors: Jane M
authors: JM
authors: Schuh
keywords: allergic asthma; eosinophils; fungus; inflammation
references: J Clin Invest. 1999 Jun;103(12):1719-27
references: 10377178
references: Br J Pharmacol. 2000 Aug;130(7):1539-46
references: 10928955
references: Curr Opin Hematol. 2012 May;19(3):212-7
references: 22395664
references: Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 1999 Oct;36(5):453-96
references: 10560888
references: Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2008 Nov;139(5):695-701
references: 18984266
references: Eur J Pharmacol. 2006 Mar 8;533(1-3):277-88
references: 16464446
references: J Immunol. 2008 Jun 15;180(12):8354-60
references: 18523302
references: Infect Immun. 2011 Jan;79(1):125-35
references: 21041495
references: Eur J Respir Dis Suppl. 1983;129:1-44
references: 6418559
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010 Mar;125(3):593-9
references: 20132971
references: Arch Bronconeumol. 2010 Nov;46(11):587-93
references: 20832159
references: J Exp Med. 1992 Dec 1;176(6):1489-95
references: 1281207
references: Clin Dev Immunol. 2011;2011:843763
references: 21603163
references: Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2009 May 1;6(3):256-9
references: 19387026
references: Exp Cell Res. 2000 Nov 25;261(1):1-12
references: 11082269
references: Med Mycol. 2001 Feb;39(1):41-50
references: 11270407
references: J Immunol. 2005 Jan 15;174(2):783-9
references: 15634899
references: J Leukoc Biol. 2002 Jun;71(6):1033-41
references: 12050190
references: Trends Immunol. 2004 Sep;25(9):477-82
references: 15324740
references: Immunol Invest. 1988 Nov-Dec;17(8-9):679-705
references: 3068126
references: J Exp Med. 1995 Oct 1;182(4):1169-74
references: 7561691
references: Nat Rev Immunol. 2011 Jun;11(6):416-26
references: 21597477
references: Clin Exp Immunol. 1991 Nov;86(2):271-7
references: 1682072
references: Blood. 2006 Mar 15;107(6):2562-9
references: 16322466
references: Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol. 1989;88(1-2):54-8
references: 2523359
references: J Immunol. 1995 Sep 15;155(6):3234-44
references: 7673736
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001 Oct;108(4):503-8
references: 11590372
references: Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2004 Nov;24(4):645-66, vii
references: 15474864
references: J Leukoc Biol. 2008 Apr;83(4):822-3
references: 18281439
references: Clin Chest Med. 1995 Dec;16(4):583-602
references: 8565402
references: Curr Opin Immunol. 2007 Dec;19(6):676-80
references: 17720466
references: J Immunol. 1999 Jan 15;162(2):1127-36
references: 9916743
references: PLoS One. 2008 Sep 03;3(9):e3129
references: 18769622
references: Med Mycol. 2010 Mar;48(2):217-28
references: 20055736
references: J Leukoc Biol. 2002 Oct;72(4):769-79
references: 12377947
references: J Leukoc Biol. 2008 Jan;83(1):1-12
references: 17906117
references: Biochem Soc Trans. 2004 Jun;32(Pt3):407-11
references: 15157148
references: Pol Merkur Lekarski. 1999 Sep;7(39):85-93
references: 10598480
references: Nat Rev Microbiol. 2007 Aug;5(8):577-82
references: 17632569
references: J Immunol. 2001 Sep 15;167(6):3146-55
references: 11544300
references: Science. 2004 Sep 17;305(5691):1776-9
references: 15375268
references: Allergy. 1999 Jan;54(1):15-26
references: 10195355
references: Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 Nov;156(5):1377-83
references: 9372648
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007 Jun;119(6):1303-10; quiz 1311-2
references: 17481712
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005 Mar;115(3):501-7
references: 15753896
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Feb;86(4):1348-51
references: 2919183
references: Nat Med. 2008 Sep;14(9):949-53
references: 18690244
references: J Biol Chem. 1999 Sep 3;274(36):25933-44
references: 10464338
references: Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2003 Jan;284(1):L169-78
references: 12388345
references: Infect Immun. 2009 Jan;77(1):108-19
references: 18936185
references: Thorax. 2006 Apr;61(4):313-9
references: 16449267
references: Am J Pathol. 2000 Feb;156(2):723-32
references: 10666400
references: Exp Cell Res. 2005 Mar 10;304(1):81-90
references: 15707576
references: J Immunol. 2003 Jun 1;170(11):5359-66
references: 12759409
references: Cell Microbiol. 2006 Apr;8(4):668-76
references: 16548892
references: Nat Med. 1996 Apr;2(4):449-56
references: 8597956
references: J Clin Invest. 2004 Feb;113(4):507-9
references: 14966558
references: Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1997 Sep;17(3):326-33
references: 9308919
references: Pediatrics. 2009 Aug;124(2):e329-38
references: 19651571
references: J Immunol. 1989 Apr 1;142(7):2393-400
references: 2926137
references: Front Biosci. 2003 Jan 01;8:e147-56
references: 12456354
references: Med Mycol. 2009;47 Suppl 1:S192-8
references: 18608931
references: J Clin Invest. 1996 Nov 15;98(10):2332-45
references: 8941651
references: J Clin Invest. 2004 Feb;113(4):551-60
references: 14966564
references: Curr Top Med Chem. 2004;4(14):1461-71
references: 15544537
references: Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2003 Aug-Sep;69(2-3):135-43
references: 12895596
references: Science. 1998 Dec 18;282(5397):2261-3
references: 9856950
references: J Exp Med. 2006 Nov 27;203(12):2715-25
references: 17101734
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008 Jul;122(1):202-8, 208.e1-7
references: 18602573
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003 May;111(5):923-32; quiz 933
references: 12743551
references: Thorax. 2007 Mar;62(3):260-4
references: 16893948
references: Allergy Asthma Proc. 2001 May-Jun;22(3):133-7
references: 11424873
references: Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2004 Jul;31(1):62-8
references: 14975941
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005 Oct;116(4):827-35
references: 16210057
references: J Exp Med. 1983 Jun 1;157(6):1981-91
references: 6854212
references: J Immunol. 2011 Sep 1;187(5):2261-7
references: 21824866
references: Nat Rev Immunol. 2013 Jan;13(1):9-22
references: 23154224
references: Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000 Oct;162(4 Pt 1):1348-54
references: 11029343
references: J Clin Invest. 1993 Oct;92(4):1681-5
references: 8408621
references: Ther Umsch. 2006 Jan;63(1):89-97
references: 16450739
references: J Exp Med. 1998 Dec 7;188(11):2187-91
references: 9841932
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1993 Oct;92(4):537-48
references: 8409114
references: J Immunol. 1998 Oct 15;161(8):4340-6
references: 9780211
references: Int Immunopharmacol. 2007 Dec 20;7(14):1909-23
references: 18039528
references: Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol. 1979;58(4):375-90
references: 571415
references: Blood. 1980 Jul;56(1):11-4
references: 6992887
references: J Immunol. 2008 Aug 15;181(4):2907-15
references: 18684982
references: Nature. 2001 Jan 4;409(6816):31-2
references: 11343098
references: Immunology. 1990 Jun;70(2):251-7
references: 2373521
references: J Immunol. 1999 Jun 1;162(11):6893-900
references: 10352311
references: Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 1997;92 Suppl 2:75-91
references: 9698919
references: Nature. 1998 Apr 9;392(6676):565-8
references: 9560152
references: Biochim Biophys Acta. 1996 Feb 7;1305(1-2):39-43
references: 8605247
references: J Leukoc Biol. 1998 Dec;64(6):828-34
references: 9850167
references: Mol Med. 1996 May;2(3):334-48
references: 8784786
references: Immunol Lett. 2007 Oct 31;113(1):6-18
references: 17765979
references: J Immunol. 1995 May 15;154(10):5481-90
references: 7730650
references: Immunol Lett. 1995 Feb;45(1-2):43-6
references: 7622186
references: Pharmacol Ther. 2011 Jun;130(3):325-37
references: 21334378
references: J Exp Med. 2002 Jun 3;195(11):F43-7
references: 12045250
references: Annu Rev Immunol. 2006;24:147-74
references: 16551246
references: Indoor Air. 2007 Aug;17(4):284-96
references: 17661925
references: Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2010 Jan;10(1):39-48
references: 20425513
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000 Feb;105(2 Pt 1):211-23
references: 10669839
references: Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2002 Jul;283(1):L198-204
references: 12060577
references: Immunol Rev. 2011 Jul;242(1):161-77
references: 21682744
references: Nature. 1975 Aug 28;256(5520):727-9
references: 1153011
references: Clin Exp Allergy. 2000 Feb;30(2):255-63
references: 10651778
references: J Leukoc Biol. 1996 Mar;59(3):347-56
references: 8604012
references: Immunology. 2012 May;136(1):11-20
references: 22242941
references: J Exp Med. 1995 Jun 1;181(6):2119-27
references: 7760001
references: J Pediatr (Rio J). 2006 Nov;82(5 Suppl):S127-32
references: 17136288
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003 Apr;111(4):714-9
references: 12704348
references: Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 1994;104 Suppl 1(1):60-2
references: 8156008
references: Immunology. 2003 Feb;108(2):245-56
references: 12562334
references: Eur Respir J. 2006 Jan;27(1):208-29
references: 16387953
references: Toxicol In Vitro. 2008 Sep;22(6):1419-31
references: 18603401
references: Eur J Biochem. 1993 Oct 1;217(1):289-94
references: 8223566
references: J Clin Invest. 1993 Apr;91(4):1314-8
references: 8473484
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000 Nov;106(5):933-40
references: 11080717
references: Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol. 2011 Oct-Dec;24(4):949-60
references: 22230401
references: J Immunol. 2002 Mar 15;168(6):3017-23
references: 11884474
references: Blood. 1992 Jun 15;79(12):3101-9
references: 1596561
references: J Immunol. 1997 Nov 1;159(9):4593-601
references: 9379061
references: Infect Immun. 2012 Apr;80(4):1424-36
references: 22252873
references: J Immunol. 1998 Jun 15;160(12):6121-7
references: 9637529
references: Regul Pept. 2010 Sep 24;164(2-3):151-7
references: 20566347
references: Science. 1998 Jun 26;280(5372):2074-5
references: 9669963
references: Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Nov 15;164(10 Pt 2):S28-38
references: 11734464
references: FEBS Lett. 1998 Sep 4;434(3):226-30
references: 9742928
references: Reg Immunol. 1993 May-Aug;5(3-4):218-24
references: 8240938
references: Int Immunol. 1999 Jan;11(1):1-10
references: 10050668
references: J Parasitol Res. 2012;2012:929743
references: 22536481
references: Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 Apr;155(4):1398-403
references: 9105085
references: Clin Infect Dis. 2001 Feb 1;32(3):358-66
references: 11170942
references: Blood. 1997 Mar 1;89(5):1471-82
references: 9057626
references: Science. 2004 Mar 5;303(5663):1532-5
references: 15001782
references: Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 Apr;153(4 Pt 1):1398-404
references: 8616572
references: J Exp Med. 2002 Jun 3;195(11):1379-86
references: 12045236
references: Med Mycol. 2010 Dec;48(8):1056-65
references: 20482452
references: Nature. 2007 May 3;447(7140):92-6
references: 17450126
references: J Exp Med. 2002 Jun 3;195(11):1433-44
references: 12045241
references: Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 Nov;158(5 Pt 3):S154-60
references: 9817739
references: J Immunol. 1994 Sep 15;153(6):2664-70
references: 7521368
references: Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000 Jun;161(6):2074-85
references: 10852790
references: Curr Opin Hematol. 2000 Jan;7(1):32-9
references: 10608502
references: Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1999 Jan;20(1):9-13
references: 9870912
references: Annu Rev Physiol. 2009;71:489-507
references: 19575684
references: Blood. 1998 Apr 1;91(7):2240-8
references: 9516121
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999 Oct;104(4 Pt 1):S132-7
references: 10518809
references: Eur J Immunol. 1996 Jan;26(1):70-6
references: 8566086
references: Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2003 Aug;3(4):443-8
references: 12901955
references: Allergy Proc. 1995 Jan-Feb;16(1):13-21
references: 7768455
references: Annu Rev Immunol. 2005;23:821-52
references: 15771587
references: Chem Immunol. 2000;76:45-62
references: 10761304
references: J Immunol. 2005 May 1;174(9):5774-80
references: 15843580
references: Nature. 2000 Aug 31;406(6799):998-1001
references: 10984054
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000 Apr;105(4):651-63
references: 10756213
references: Br Med Bull. 2000;56(4):985-1003
references: 11359633
references: Immunol Rev. 2006 Aug;212:238-55
references: 16903918
references: Immunol Rev. 2001 Feb;179:173-81
references: 11292021
references: Nature. 2004 Nov 4;432(7013):59-67
references: 15378069
references: J Immunol. 2006 Sep 15;177(6):4064-71
references: 16951370
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003 Jun;111(6):1185-99; quiz 1200
references: 12789214
references: J Immunol. 2005 Jan 1;174(1):110-8
references: 15611233
references: J Clin Invest. 1991 Sep;88(3):825-32
references: 1885772
references: Blood. 1999 Jul 1;94(1):23-32
references: 10381494
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1994 Nov;94(5):861-9
references: 7963155
references: Clin Respir J. 2010 May;4 Suppl 1:15-9
references: 20500605
references: J Exp Med. 1997 Jun 16;185(12):2143-56
references: 9182686
references: J Clin Invest. 2008 Nov;118(11):3546-56
references: 18982161
references: Clin Exp Allergy. 2007 Jul;37(7):1023-32
references: 17581195
references: J Infect Dis. 1997 Dec;176(6):1579-83
references: 9395370
references: Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1994 Jun;10(6):587-93
references: 8003337
references: Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003 May 15;167(10):1400-9
references: 12569079
references: Adv Immunol. 1992;51:323-82
references: 1502977
references: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2005 Sep;71(9):5544-50
references: 16151147
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012 Feb;129(2):280-91; quiz 292-3
references: 22284927
references: Cell Mol Immunol. 2004 Apr;1(2):95-104
references: 16212895
references: Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2005 May;5(3):204-11
references: 15842958
references: Clin Microbiol Rev. 1995 Apr;8(2):161-79
references: 7621398
references: Environ Health Perspect. 2008 Jan;116(1):45-50
references: 18197298
references: J Immunol. 1999 Jun 1;162(11):6901-11
references: 10352312
references: Nature. 1994 Jan 13;367(6459):183-6
references: 8114916
references: Curr Opin Immunol. 2007 Dec;19(6):681-6
references: 17949963
references: Cell Mol Life Sci. 2007 May;64(10):1269-89
references: 17364144
references: J Lipid Mediat. 1990 May-Jul;2(3-4):123-58
references: 1966805
references: J Immunol. 2005 Oct 15;175(8):5341-50
references: 16210640
references: Environ Health Perspect. 2011 Jun;119(6):748-56
references: 21269928
references: Ann Allergy. 1994 Apr;72(4):376-80
references: 8154637
references: J Leukoc Biol. 2004 Jun;75(6):1001-9
references: 15020648
references: Curr Opin Immunol. 1998 Jun;10(3):322-9
references: 9638369
references: Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 2004 Jun;134 Suppl 1:37-43
references: 15166482
references: J Immunol. 1999 Mar 1;162(5):2477-87
references: 10072486
references: Scand J Immunol. 1989 Jun;29(6):709-16
references: 2544988
references: Blood. 1996 Oct 15;88(8):3195-9
references: 8874220
references: Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi. 2006 Aug;29(8):558-62
references: 17074272
references: Allergy. 1998 Oct;53(10):951-6
references: 9821474
references: Blood. 2000 Mar 1;95(5):1600-7
references: 10688814
references: PLoS One. 2012;7(7):e40552
references: 22815762
references: Pneumonol Alergol Pol. 2007;75(2):180-5
references: 17973226
references: J Immunol. 1992 Dec 1;149(11):3710-8
references: 1358975
references: N Engl J Med. 2009 Mar 5;360(10):973-84
references: 19264686
references: J Biol Chem. 1996 Aug 23;271(34):20231-4
references: 8702752
references: J Clin Invest. 2003 Oct;112(7):1029-36
references: 14523040
references: Cell. 2008 Feb 8;132(3):463-73
references: 18267076
references: J Clin Invest. 1996 Apr 1;97(7):1761-6
references: 8601642
references: Eur Respir J. 2006 Mar;27(3):615-26
references: 16507864
references: J Immunol. 1992 Jul 15;149(2):629-35
references: 1624806
references: J Immunol. 2011 May 1;186(9):5021-3
references: 21505213
references: Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989 Jul;140(1):125-31
references: 2751158
references: Immunol Rev. 2009 Jul;230(1):38-50
references: 19594628
references: Immunol Today. 1999 Nov;20(11):500-4
references: 10529777
references: J Exp Med. 1997 Feb 17;185(4):785-90
references: 9034156
references: J Exp Med. 1994 Feb 1;179(2):751-6
references: 7507512
references: J Exp Med. 1998 Jul 6;188(1):157-67
references: 9653092
references: Scand J Immunol. 1996 Sep;44(3):229-38
references: 8795716
references: Clin Microbiol Rev. 1999 Apr;12(2):310-50
references: 10194462
references: J Immunol. 1992 Nov 15;149(10):3309-15
references: 1385521
references: Clin Exp Allergy. 2004 Mar;34(3):497-507
references: 15005746
references: Blood. 2008 Mar 15;111(6):3070-80
references: 18182576
references: J Exp Med. 1996 Jun 1;183(6):2437-48
references: 8676064
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005 Jan;115(1):95-102
references: 15637553
references: J Immunol. 1984 Oct;133(4):2180-5
references: 6206154
references: FASEB J. 2009 Apr;23(4):1262-71
references: 19088181
references: Thorax. 2003 Sep;58(9):772-7
references: 12947136
references: Blood. 1998 Apr 15;91(8):2847-56
references: 9531595
references: Allergy. 2004 Oct;59(10):1080-6
references: 15355467
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998 May 26;95(11):6273-8
references: 9600955
references: J Biol Chem. 2003 Nov 7;278(45):44921-8
references: 12923203
references: Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2000 Oct;23(4):444-51
references: 11017908
references: Clin Microbiol Rev. 2009 Jul;22(3):447-65
references: 19597008
references: Peptides. 2011 Jan;32(1):131-7
references: 20923692
references: J Bras Pneumol. 2009 Jun;35(6):561-73
references: 19618037
references: J Biol Chem. 2013 Jan 11;288(2):1374-84
references: 23168411
references: J Immunol. 2012 Aug 1;189(3):1322-9
references: 22732592
references: Eur J Immunol. 2003 Nov;33(11):3080-90
references: 14579276
references: Mol Immunol. 2002 Sep;38(16-18):1369
references: 12217410
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1978 Jul;62(1):9-14
references: 350936
references: Immunol Cell Biol. 2000 Aug;78(4):415-22
references: 10947867
references: Blood. 1993 Nov 1;82(9):2872-9
references: 8219235
references: Agents Actions Suppl. 1993;43:197-208
references: 8368163
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Apr 30;93(9):4219-23
references: 8633044
references: Mayo Clin Proc. 1981 Jun;56(6):345-53
references: 7230899
references: Am J Physiol. 1998 Sep;275(3):C623-33
references: 9730944
references: Nat Cell Biol. 2003 Aug;5(8):711-9
references: 12844144
references: J Exp Med. 1989 Jul 1;170(1):163-76
references: 2473157
references: Chest. 2005 Apr;127(4):1252-9
references: 15821202
references: Blood. 1992 Jun 1;79(11):2952-9
references: 1316789
references: Pulm Pharmacol Ther. 2003;16(5):279-85
references: 12877819
references: J Immunol. 2006 Jul 1;177(1):77-83
references: 16785501
references: Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2001 Sep;25(3):385-91
references: 11588018
references: J Clin Invest. 1997 Mar 1;99(5):1064-71
references: 9062365
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000 Feb;105(2 Pt 1):232-8
references: 10669841
references: Rinsho Byori. 2001 Apr;49(4):370-5
references: 11391951
references: Eur J Pharmacol. 2007 Mar 22;559(2-3):202-9
references: 17234179
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999 Jun;103(6):1054-61
references: 10359886
references: Fungal Biol. 2011 Jan;115(1):21-9
references: 21215951
references: Respir Res. 2001;2(3):150-6
references: 11686879
references: Infect Immun. 1993 Dec;61(12):5410-2
references: 7901170
references: Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2009 Jul;103(1):26-30
references: 19663123
references: Complement. 1986;3(3):111-27
references: 3542363
references: J Exp Med. 1993 Mar 1;177(3):839-43
references: 8436913
references: Allergy Asthma Immunol Res. 2012 Mar;4(2):68-79
references: 22379601
references: Immunopharmacology. 2000 Mar;46(3):209-22
references: 10741901
references: PLoS Pathog. 2010 Apr 29;6(4):e1000873
references: 20442864
references: J Immunol Methods. 1996 Oct 16;197(1-2):97-107
references: 8890897
references: J Immunol. 2010 Sep 1;185(5):2968-79
references: 20656927
references: J Clin Invest. 2000 Apr;105(7):945-53
references: 10749574
references: Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 1996 Nov;18(4):587-95
references: 8933171
references: Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000 Oct;162(4 Pt 1):1377-82
references: 11029348
references: Clin Exp Allergy. 2005 Feb;35(2):117-21
references: 15725180
references: Respir Med. 2012 Jan;106(1):9-14
references: 22112783
references: J Exp Med. 2000 Jan 17;191(2):265-74
references: 10637271
references: Allergy Asthma Proc. 1998 Jan-Feb;19(1):15-22
references: 9532320
references: Med Mycol. 2005 May;43 Suppl 1:S197-202
references: 16110812
references: Lung. 2001;179(1):9-20
references: 11479690