title: Mechanisms, causes, investigation and management of vomiting disorders in cats: a literature review.
abstract: Vomiting is a common presenting complaint in feline practice. This article differs from previous reviews in that it is an evidence-based review of the mechanisms, causes, investigation and management of vomiting in the domestic cat. Published evidence was reviewed, and then used to make recommendations for clinical assessment, diagnosis, antiemetic drug treatment, dietary management and monitoring of cats presenting with vomiting. The strength of the evidence on which recommendations are made (and areas where evidence is lacking for cats) has been highlighted throughout.
authors: School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.
authors: Daniel J
authors: DJ
authors: Batchelor
authors: Patrick
authors: P
authors: Devauchelle
authors: Jonathan
authors: J
authors: Elliott
authors: Clive M
authors: CM
authors: Elwood
authors: Valerie
authors: V
authors: Freiche
authors: Massimo
authors: M
authors: Gualtieri
authors: Edward J
authors: EJ
authors: Hall
authors: Erik
authors: E
authors: Den Hertog
authors: Reto
authors: R
authors: Neiger
authors: Dominique
authors: D
authors: Peeters
authors: Xavier
authors: X
authors: Roura
authors: Karine
authors: K
authors: Savary-Bataille
authors: Alexander J
authors: AJ
authors: German
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000932:Antiemetics / Q000627:therapeutic use; D002371:Cat Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000628:therapy*; D002415:Cats; D002908:Chronic Disease; D003967:Diarrhea / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000628:therapy / Q000662:veterinary*; D019468:Disease Management; D005260:Female; D008286:Malabsorption Syndromes / Q000662:veterinary; D008297:Male; D014839:Vomiting / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000628:therapy / Q000662:veterinary*; D015431:Weight Loss
chemical_list: D000932:Antiemetics
references: J Vet Intern Med. 1999 May-Jun;13(3):191-3
references: 10357107
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2009 Feb;11(2):107-15
references: 18693055
references: Vet Pathol. 2005 Jan;42(1):97-100
references: 15657281
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1989 May 15;194(10):1467-73
references: 2470710
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2006 May 1;228(9):1376-82
references: 16649942
references: Life Sci. 1989;44(18):1239-45
references: 2469925
references: Am J Physiol. 1998 Apr;274(4):R950-5
references: 9575955
references: J Vet Intern Med. 2009 Jan-Feb;23(1):16-23
references: 19175715
references: Vet Rec. 2011 Jul 30;169(5):132-3
references: 21803827
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2003 Aug;5(4):217-26
references: 12878149
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1992 Aug 1;201(3):475-7
references: 1506258
references: J Vet Diagn Invest. 2007 Sep;19(5):525-31
references: 17823396
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1995 May 15;206(10):1550-4
references: 7775231
references: Schweiz Arch Tierheilkd. 2007 Dec;149(12):559-62
references: 18225412
references: J Small Anim Pract. 2003 May;44(5):231-5
references: 12779176
references: J Vet Diagn Invest. 2011 Jan;23(1):104-8
references: 21217037
references: Am J Vet Res. 2007 Jan;68(1):48-56
references: 17199418
references: Eur J Pharmacol. 1994 Feb 21;253(1-2):53-60
references: 8013549
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 1998 Jul-Aug;34(4):275-80
references: 9657158
references: Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2007 Sep-Oct;48(5):448-50
references: 17899980
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1989 Mar 1;194(5):669-76
references: 2494142
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1992 Aug 15;201(4):597-8
references: 1517136
references: Cancer Treat Rep. 1982 Aug;66(8):1625-9
references: 7105052
references: Eur J Pharmacol. 2000 Mar 10;391(1-2):145-50
references: 10720646
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2006 Apr;8(2):91-103
references: 16278090
references: Vet J. 1998 Sep;156(2):91-106
references: 9805477
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 1995 Sep-Oct;31(5):416-8
references: 8542359
references: Top Companion Anim Med. 2008 Nov;23(4):177-84
references: 19081551
references: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1989 Jul;33(3):627-31
references: 2531422
references: J Vet Pharmacol Ther. 1981 Jun;4(2):93-6
references: 7349332
references: Cancer Treat Rep. 1984 Feb;68(2):401-4
references: 6538113
references: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1986 May;237(2):450-5
references: 3009784
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1990 Jul 1;197(1):104-6
references: 2370206
references: Vet Anaesth Analg. 2011 Jul;38(4):320-7
references: 21645198
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1999 May 1;214(9):1336-41
references: 10319174
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2006 May-Jun;42(3):234-7
references: 16611937
references: N Z Vet J. 2005 Oct;53(5):371-4
references: 16220136
references: J Small Anim Pract. 2002 Sep;43(9):401-5
references: 12238505
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2003 Oct;5(5):249-55
references: 12948499
references: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1965 Mar;147:409-15
references: 14269618
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2006 Feb 15;228(4):559-63
references: 16478432
references: N Z Vet J. 1971 Jan-Feb;19(1-2):26-7
references: 5280751
references: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1989 Jan;32(1):207-10
references: 2734331
references: Exp Neurol. 1986 Jun;92(3):723-37
references: 3709744
references: J Vet Intern Med. 2005 Mar-Apr;19(2):155-60
references: 15822558
references: Anesth Analg. 2004 Sep;99(3):734-739
references: 15333403
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2006 Oct;8(5):349-52
references: 16765627
references: Arch Dis Child. 1978 Feb;53(2):150-3
references: 646417
references: Res Vet Sci. 2011 Dec;91(3):e129-35
references: 21349562
references: Vet Ther. 2000 Summer;1(3):176-82
references: 19757580
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1991 Feb 1;198(3):411-8
references: 2010334
references: Vet Rec. 2004 Apr 3;154(14):430-3
references: 15119895
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1984 Jan 1;184(1):56-9
references: 6698839
references: Theriogenology. 2004 May;61(7-8):1471-5
references: 15036977
references: Can Vet J. 1988 May;29(5):448-52
references: 17423047
references: J Small Anim Pract. 2000 Aug;41(8):339-41
references: 11002934
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2006 Dec;8(6):372-8
references: 16877021
references: Eur J Pharmacol. 1992 Dec 15;229(2-3):241-51
references: 1362706
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2007 Mar-Apr;43(2):112-6
references: 17339288
references: Am J Vet Res. 2001 Aug;62(8):1218-21
references: 11497441
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1997 Mar 15;210(6):772-7
references: 9074678
references: Parasite. 2007 Mar;14(1):71-6
references: 17432059
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2011 Feb;13(2):125-8
references: 21036643
references: J Comp Pathol. 2010 Feb-Apr;142(2-3):170-6
references: 19954795
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1999 Oct 15;215(8):1127-9
references: 10530327
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1993 Feb 15;202(4):647-51
references: 8449811
references: J Nutr. 1998 Dec;128(12 Suppl):2790S-2791S
references: 9868267
references: Am J Physiol. 1974 Mar;226(3):738-43
references: 4817428
references: Vet Dermatol. 2011 Dec;22(6):511-20
references: 21545660
references: Vet Clin Pathol. 1998;27(2):50-53
references: 12075548
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1981 Mar 1;178(5):475-8
references: 7240003
references: J Vet Pharmacol Ther. 2008 Jun;31(3):220-9
references: 18471143
references: Brain Res. 1983 Jun 27;270(1):154-8
references: 6347342
references: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1977 Oct;203(1):222-30
references: 909053
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1992 Oct 15;201(8):1265-9
references: 1429172
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2010 Feb;12(2):138-40
references: 19716738
references: Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2011 May-Jun;52(3):335-9
references: 21554484
references: Tijdschr Diergeneeskd. 2009 Mar 1;134(5):198-9
references: 19331065
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1993 Jun 1;202(11):1839-44
references: 8320152
references: Chin Med J (Engl). 2006 Apr 20;119(8):656-61
references: 16635410
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2009 Aug;11(8):701-5
references: 19181557
references: Vet Rec. 1996 Feb 3;138(5):119
references: 8650911
references: J Vet Intern Med. 1989 Apr-Jun;3(2):55-8
references: 2469793
references: J Comp Pathol. 2009 Aug-Oct;141(2-3):127-34
references: 19446836
references: Vet Rec. 1989 Aug 19;125(8):186
references: 2678725
references: Vet Pathol. 2005 May;42(3):331-7
references: 15872379
references: Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 1999 Mar;29(2):589-603
references: 10202804
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2009 Mar-Apr;45(2):93-6
references: 19258422
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1999 Aug 1;215(3):349-54
references: 10434972
references: Am J Vet Res. 1994 Sep;55(9):1291-302
references: 7802398
references: Vet Clin Pathol. 1997;26(2):85-89
references: 12658601
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1983 Aug 1;183(3):325-6
references: 6885608
references: Neurosci Res. 1998 May;31(1):77-80
references: 9704981
references: Am J Vet Res. 2006 Mar;67(3):510-6
references: 16506919
references: Br J Pharmacol. 1997 Jan;120(1):116-20
references: 9117085
references: Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1989 Dec;101(3):399-413
references: 2513668
references: Can Vet J. 1988 Sep;29(9):709-12
references: 17423115
references: Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1953 Mar;82(3):441-4
references: 13047426
references: J Small Anim Pract. 2010 Jan;51(1):4-22
references: 20137004
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1997 Jun 15;210(12):1757-60
references: 9187724
references: J Vet Diagn Invest. 2003 Sep;15(5):484-8
references: 14535554
references: Vet Rec. 1993 Apr 3;132(14):358-9
references: 8488641
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2006 Apr;8(2):129-34
references: 16325444
references: Am J Vet Res. 2003 Mar;64(3):310-5
references: 12661871
references: Vet Clin Pathol. 2005 Jun;34(2):156-60
references: 15902669
references: Vet Surg. 1989 Sep-Oct;18(5):386-91
references: 2815556
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2000 Jul-Aug;36(4):332-6
references: 10914533
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2000 Nov-Dec;36(6):481-3
references: 11105883
references: J Nutr. 1994 Jul;124(7):1094-103
references: 8027861
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2000 Jul 1;217(1):37-42
references: 10909444
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2011 Apr;13(4):291-5
references: 21414552
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1988 Jan 15;192(2):233-5
references: 3350752
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2010 Apr;12(4):262-8
references: 20363461
references: Aust Vet J. 1978 Sep;54(9):437-9
references: 743057
references: Clin Tech Small Anim Pract. 2002 Nov;17(4):178-83
references: 12587284
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2009 Aug;11(8):633-44
references: 19201637
references: J Small Anim Pract. 2008 Mar;49(3):133-8
references: 17850273
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1987 May 1;190(9):1196-202
references: 3583899
references: J Vet Med Sci. 2004 Feb;66(2):189-91
references: 15031548
references: Vet Rec. 1987 Mar 7;120(10):235-6
references: 3576924
references: Brain Res. 1990 Apr 9;513(1):101-5
references: 2350673
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1992 Nov 15;201(10):1603-8
references: 1289345
references: Lancet. 2006 Apr 1;367(9516):1101-1111
references: 16581410
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 1997 Sep-Oct;33(5):405-10
references: 9278115
references: J Auton Nerv Syst. 1990 Nov;31(2):109-18
references: 2290001
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2008 Feb;10(1):73-81
references: 17827048
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2002 Jan-Feb;38(1):41-4
references: 11804313
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2000 Aug 1;217(3):355-8
references: 10935039
references: Vet Pathol. 2008 Mar;45(2):188-90
references: 18424831
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2006 Feb 1;228(3):392-6
references: 16448363
references: J Vet Med Sci. 1997 Nov;59(11):1045-8
references: 9409523
references: J Small Anim Pract. 2009 Oct;50(10):518-24
references: 19796310
references: Vet Pathol. 1997 Mar;34(2):156-9
references: 9066084
references: J Comp Pathol. 2006 May;134(4):374-7
references: 16701681
references: Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2003 Jan-Feb;44(1):81-5
references: 12620056
references: Vet Q. 1997 Jun;19(2):81-4
references: 9225438
references: Mil Med. 2002 Mar;167(3):219-22
references: 11901570
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2009 Aug;11(8):692-700
references: 19576832
references: Am J Vet Res. 1997 Sep;58(9):989-96
references: 9285003
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2007 Oct;9(5):424-31
references: 17475529
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2001 May-Jun;37(3):234-7
references: 11361114
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2004 Dec;6(6):397-400
references: 15546773
references: Am J Vet Res. 1997 Jun;58(6):677-9
references: 9185979
references: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1990 Oct;37(2):283-7
references: 2150442
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2001 Jun;3(2):95-8
references: 11876623
references: Eur J Cancer. 2005 Jan;41(2):199-205
references: 15661543
references: J Vet Intern Med. 2011 Mar-Apr;25(2):230-5
references: 21281349
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2010 Dec;12(12):899-903
references: 20817585
references: Clin Nutr. 2002 Dec;21(6):469-73
references: 12468366
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2004 Aug;6(4):259-69
references: 15265481
references: Am J Vet Res. 1977 Jun;38(6):823-30
references: 879580
references: Vet Rec. 2008 Dec 20-27;163(25):748-9
references: 19103619
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2010 Oct;12(10):822-7
references: 20817526
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2009 Apr;11(4):259-65
references: 18974017
references: Chin Med J (Engl). 1992 Apr;105(4):322-7
references: 1618017
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 1997 Nov-Dec;33(6):500-8
references: 9358417
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2006 Nov-Dec;42(6):424-9
references: 17088388
references: J Vet Intern Med. 2004 Nov-Dec;18(6):807-15
references: 15638263
references: J Clin Pharmacol. 1981 Aug-Sep;21(S1):30S-37S
references: 6271834
references: J Small Anim Pract. 2006 Aug;47(8):446-50
references: 16911112
references: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1992 Feb;260(2):509-17
references: 1738101
references: J Small Anim Pract. 1974 Aug;15(8):487-501
references: 4469560
references: J Pharm Pharmacol. 1988 Feb;40(2):142-3
references: 2897451
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1998 Jan 1;212(1):81-3
references: 9426784
references: J Vet Intern Med. 2004 Nov-Dec;18(6):816-25
references: 15638264
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2008 Jul;10(3):235-41
references: 18440263
references: J Vet Med Sci. 2000 Jan;62(1):113-5
references: 10676902
references: Gastroenterology. 1972 Dec;63(6):1004-10
references: 4639355
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2000 Dec 15;217(12):1862-5
references: 11132893
references: J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001 Oct;33 Suppl 2:S13-6
references: 11698780
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2008 Feb;10(1):1-8
references: 17706446
references: J Vet Intern Med. 1988 Jul-Sep;2(3):150-7
references: 3265728
references: Can Vet J. 1999 Mar;40(3):196-8
references: 10086223
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 1995 Nov-Dec;31(6):478-82
references: 8581542
references: J Small Anim Pract. 2006 Aug;47(8):471-5
references: 16911118
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2008 Jul;10(3):284-90
references: 18243747
references: Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2005 May-Jun;46(3):263-6
references: 16050287
references: J Clin Pharmacol. 1987 Oct;27(10):817-8
references: 3429687
references: J Small Anim Pract. 2001 Apr;42(4):186-90
references: 11327666
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2004 Jan-Feb;40(1):51-63
references: 14736906
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2004 May-Jun;40(3):238-45
references: 15131106
references: J Feline Med Surg. 1999 Dec;1(4):221-31
references: 11714239
references: J Feline Med Surg. 1999 Dec;1(4):199-207
references: 11714236
references: J Comp Pathol. 1998 Jul;119(1):1-14
references: 9717123
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2001 Sep 15;219(6):789-94
references: 11561655
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2005 Apr;7(2):125-7
references: 15771949
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2000 Nov-Dec;36(6):512-7
references: 11105888
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2004 Dec;6(6):391-5
references: 15546772
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2008 Feb 1;232(3):405-10
references: 18241108
references: J Vet Intern Med. 2008 Nov-Dec;22(6):1263-6
references: 18761601
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2002 Jan-Feb;38(1):61-6
references: 11804317
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1989 Jan 15;194(2):213-20
references: 2537269
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1971 Mar 15;158(6):Suppl 2:857-9
references: 5280566
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2010 Feb;12(2):151-5
references: 19699668
references: J Vet Med A Physiol Pathol Clin Med. 2005 Sep;52(7):371-6
references: 16109106
references: J Vet Diagn Invest. 2004 Nov;16(6):527-41
references: 15586568
references: Vet Parasitol. 2010 Oct 11;173(1-2):32-8
references: 20637546
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2006 Oct;8(5):340-4
references: 16651017
references: J Vet Med Sci. 2009 Dec;71(12):1669-72
references: 20046039
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2008 Aug;10(4):380-3
references: 18304852
references: J Vet Intern Med. 2000 Nov-Dec;14(6):619-26
references: 11110384
references: J Nutr. 1998 Dec;128(12 Suppl):2792S-2794S
references: 9868268
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 1998 Jul-Aug;34(4):315-24
references: 9657166
references: Am J Vet Res. 1986 May;47(5):1170-3
references: 2424350
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1992 Aug 15;201(4):619-22
references: 1517141
references: Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 1999 Mar;29(2):551-75
references: 10202802
references: Front Neuroendocrinol. 1994 Dec;15(4):301-20
references: 7895890
references: Am J Vet Res. 1999 Jun;60(6):755-63
references: 10376908
references: Am J Vet Res. 2006 Mar;67(3):517-23
references: 16506920
references: Am J Otolaryngol. 1992 May-Jun;13(3):176-80
references: 1626619
references: Pharmacol Res. 2002 Nov;46(5):425-34
references: 12419647
references: Am J Vet Res. 1983 Oct;44(10):1822-9
references: 6638641
references: Alcohol. 1999 Jun-Jul;18(2-3):215-9
references: 10456573
references: Vet Pathol. 2006 May;43(3):358-62
references: 16672584
references: Vet Surg. 1994 Mar-Apr;23(2):107-14
references: 8191669
references: Brain Res. 1988 Jul 26;456(2):367-70
references: 3208085
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2008 Oct;10(5):480-7
references: 18639478
references: Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2008 Mar-Apr;49(2):176-8
references: 18419000
references: Aviat Space Environ Med. 1987 Oct;58(10):989-91
references: 3675471
references: J Vet Intern Med. 2010 Nov-Dec;24(6):1350-7
references: 21054541
references: Vet Anaesth Analg. 2006 Jul;33(4):214-23
references: 16764585
references: Vet Rec. 1992 Sep 19;131(12):257-64
references: 1413411
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2000 Jan-Feb;36(1):52-5
references: 10667406
references: J Vet Intern Med. 1993 Nov-Dec;7(6):349-59
references: 8114031
references: Vet Rec. 2000 May 20;146(21):614-6
references: 10870766
references: J Comp Pathol. 2005 Nov;133(4):253-60
references: 16213517
references: Brain Behav Evol. 1983;23(1-2):36-41
references: 6140067
references: Vet Rec. 1994 Nov 5;135(19):463
references: 7863599
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2007 Feb;9(1):82-8
references: 17222576
references: Vet Clin Pathol. 2005 Jun;34(2):110-4
references: 15902661
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2011 Aug;13(8):564-9
references: 21764618
references: Am J Vet Res. 1998 Nov;59(11):1414-6
references: 9829399
references: Am J Physiol. 1994 Oct;267(4 Pt 2):R974-83
references: 7524372
references: Brain Res. 1994 Jun 6;647(2):255-64
references: 7922502
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1998 Aug 1;213(3):381-4
references: 9702228
references: J Vet Intern Med. 2003 Nov-Dec;17(6):791-8
references: 14658714
references: J Vet Med Sci. 1999 Sep;61(9):1071-3
references: 10535517
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2009 Dec;11(12):935-40
references: 19553151
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1985 Nov 1;187(9):941-3
references: 4055520
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2002 Mar;4(1):27-42
references: 11869053
references: J Small Anim Pract. 2008 Mar;49(3):144-7
references: 17784930
references: Digestion. 1983;28(4):205-9
references: 6671481
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1997 Mar 15;210(6):794-8
references: 9074682
references: Eur J Pharmacol. 1995 Jan 5;272(1):21-30
references: 7713146
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2003 Apr 15;222(8):1097-101, 1077-8
references: 12710773
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2005 Aug;7(4):211-22
references: 16055006
references: Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2001 May-Jun;42(3):250-3
references: 11405269
references: Dig Dis Sci. 1999 Aug;44(8 Suppl):39S-43S
references: 10490038
references: J Clin Microbiol. 2004 Jun;42(6):2752-8
references: 15184462
references: Zentralbl Veterinarmed B. 1992 Aug;39(6):403-9
references: 1414094
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1996 Sep 15;209(6):1117-20
references: 8800260
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2005 Mar 15;226(6):932-6
references: 15786996
references: J Vet Intern Med. 2011 Jul-Aug;25(4):916-9
references: 21615496
references: Pharmacol Rev. 1953 Jun;5(2):193-230
references: 13064033
references: Brain Res Bull. 1993;30(1-2):119-25
references: 8420621
references: Clin Microbiol Rev. 1997 Jan;10(1):19-34
references: 8993857
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2009 Apr 1;234(7):906-13
references: 19335241
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1995 Dec 15;207(12):1593-8
references: 7493898
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1994 Jan 15;204(2):241-5
references: 8144384
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2008 Apr;10(2):137-44
references: 18042416
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2009 Mar 15;234(6):771-6
references: 19284343
references: J Vet Intern Med. 2001 Jan-Feb;15(1):26-32
references: 11215907
references: N Z Vet J. 2003 Dec;51(6):284-91
references: 16032342
references: J Vet Intern Med. 2001 Jan-Feb;15(1):7-13
references: 11215916
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2011 Feb;13(2):129-34
references: 21036642
references: J Neurophysiol. 1992 Dec;68(6):2110-9
references: 1491261
references: Clin Auton Res. 1991 Dec;1(4):275-80
references: 1822260
references: J Vet Intern Med. 1998 Sep-Oct;12(5):381-3
references: 9773415
references: J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio). 2010 Apr 1;20(2):232-6
references: 20487251
references: Schweiz Arch Tierheilkd. 1977 Oct;119(10):415-23
references: 918644
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1998 Jul 1;213(1):91-3
references: 9656031
references: Brain Res. 1998 Jan 19;781(1-2):25-36
references: 9507057
references: Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 1999 Mar;29(2):415-40
references: 10202797
references: Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1990 Feb;68(2):260-8
references: 2178751
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2003 Feb 1;222(3):337-9, 315-6
references: 12564596
references: Vet Q. 1988 Jul;10(3):151-5
references: 3176293
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2010 Feb;12(2):97-103
references: 19664949
references: Vet Clin Pathol. 2002;31(1):3-8
references: 12019470
references: J Comp Pathol. 2011 Aug-Oct;145(2-3):152-7
references: 21333305
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2008 Apr;10(2):130-6
references: 17950646
references: N Z Vet J. 1970 Jan-Feb;18(1-2):15-7
references: 5266504
references: Tijdschr Diergeneeskd. 2010 Sep 15;135(18):668-72
references: 20939411
references: J Vet Intern Med. 2000 Mar-Apr;14(2):184-9
references: 10772491
references: Am J Vet Res. 1989 Aug;50(8):1348-51
references: 2571319
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2008 Apr;10(2):198-201
references: 18082438
references: J Small Anim Pract. 1998 Feb;39(2):78-85
references: 9513888
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2006 Jan-Feb;42(1):65-70
references: 16397197
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2009 Oct;11(10):885-8
references: 19560383
references: J Vet Intern Med. 1993 Sep-Oct;7(5):309-17
references: 8263850
references: Can Vet J. 2004 Mar;45(3):248-50
references: 15072199
references: J Vet Med Sci. 2008 Jun;70(6):641-3
references: 18628611
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2010 Apr;12(4):334-7
references: 20022274
references: Vet Rec. 2005 Jun 11;156(24):772-4
references: 15951500
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2007 Apr 1;230(7):1032-7
references: 17397344
references: J Vet Med Sci. 2008 Oct;70(10):1085-9
references: 18981665
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2009 Apr;11(4):326-9
references: 18948046
references: Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 1989 Jul;19(4):797-816
references: 2672539
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2010 May 1;236(9):978-82
references: 20433398
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1995 Mar 15;206(6):817-9
references: 7759334
references: Vet Surg. 1994 Sep-Oct;23(5):365-8
references: 7839594
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1992 Jun 1;200(11):1712-8
references: 1624355
references: J Vet Intern Med. 2011 Nov-Dec;25(6):1253-7
references: 22092613
references: Acta Physiol Scand. 1973 Aug;88(4):433-9
references: 4765594
references: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1954 Jan;110(1):86-92
references: 13118482
references: Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1979 Apr;160(4):437-40
references: 450908
references: Vet Ther. 2006 Fall;7(3):199-206
references: 17039442
references: Top Companion Anim Med. 2008 Nov;23(4):200-6
references: 19081554
references: Acta Vet Scand. 1989;30(3):267-73
references: 2698057
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1996 Sep 1;209(5):943-9
references: 8790546
references: J Small Anim Pract. 2008 Sep;49(9):479-82
references: 18684151
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2006 Feb;8(1):23-44
references: 16226469
references: Radiat Res. 1987 Mar;109(3):430-9
references: 3550870
references: Am J Med. 2001 Dec 3;111 Suppl 8A:106S-112S
references: 11749934
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2002 May-Jun;38(3):290-6
references: 12022416
references: Vet Pathol. 1978 Nov;15(6):781-3
references: 751315
references: Brain Res Bull. 1998 Nov 15;47(5):407-11
references: 10052568
references: J Small Anim Pract. 2010 Mar;51(3):176-80
references: 20406359
references: J Neurosci. 1994 Feb;14(2):871-88
references: 8301366
references: J Small Anim Pract. 2002 Jun;43(6):247-53
references: 12074289
references: Metab Brain Dis. 1989 Mar;4(1):55-60
references: 2704346
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2007 Dec;9(6):514-7
references: 17669677
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2009 Jun;11(6):499-502
references: 19097817
references: Can Vet J. 2008 Jul;49(7):709-12
references: 18827849
references: J Small Anim Pract. 1998 May;39(5):218-22
references: 9631355
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2008 Mar-Apr;44(2):90-4
references: 18316446
references: N Z Vet J. 2005 Apr;53(2):157-9
references: 15846402
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2008 Apr;10(2):192-7
references: 18063400
references: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 1996 Mar-Apr;32(2):147-52
references: 8680921
references: J Feline Med Surg. 2010 Apr;12(4):325-9
references: 20227316
references: J Vet Intern Med. 2001 Mar-Apr;15(2):125-30
references: 11300595
references: Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 2008 May 15;123(1-2):106-13
references: 18387674
references: J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1986 Jan;5(1):134-7
references: 2868086
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1983 Jul 1;183(1):103-10
references: 6874510
references: Am J Physiol. 1999 Sep;277(3):G642-52
references: 10484390