title: At the mercy of strategies: the role of motor representations in language understanding.
abstract: Classical cognitive theories hold that word representations in the brain are abstract and amodal, and are independent of the objects' sensorimotor properties they refer to. An alternative hypothesis emphasizes the importance of bodily processes in cognition: the representation of a concept appears to be crucially dependent upon perceptual-motor processes that relate to it. Thus, understanding action-related words would rely upon the same motor structures that also support the execution of the same actions. In this context, motor simulation represents a key component. Our approach is to draw parallels between the literature on mental rotation and the literature on action verb/sentence processing. Here we will discuss recent studies on mental imagery, mental rotation, and language that clearly demonstrate how motor simulation is neither automatic nor necessary to language understanding. These studies have shown that motor representations can or cannot be activated depending on the type of strategy the participants adopt to perform tasks involving motor phrases. On the one hand, participants may imagine the movement with the body parts used to carry out the actions described by the verbs (i.e., motor strategy); on the other, individuals may solve the task without simulating the corresponding movements (i.e., visual strategy). While it is not surprising that the motor strategy is at work when participants process action-related verbs, it is however striking that sensorimotor activation has been reported also for imageable concrete words with no motor content, for "non-words" with regular phonology, for pseudo-verb stimuli, and also for negations. Based on the extant literature, we will argue that implicit motor imagery is not uniquely used when a body-related stimulus is encountered, and that it is not the type of stimulus that automatically triggers the motor simulation but the type of strategy. Finally, we will also comment on the view that sensorimotor activations are subjected to a top-down modulation.
authors: Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico "Eugenio Medea" San Vito al Tagliamento, Italy.
authors: Barbara
authors: B
authors: Tomasino
authors: Raffaella Ida
authors: RI
authors: Rumiati
keywords: action understanding; cognitive strategies; imagery; motor simulation; word representations
references: Science. 1995 Oct 6;270(5233):102-5
references: 7569934
references: Cognition. 2009 Mar;110(3):412-31
references: 19135654
references: Cereb Cortex. 1996 Jan-Feb;6(1):1-10
references: 8670633
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2012 Jun;24(6):1492-509
references: 22390464
references: Neuroimage. 2002 Aug;16(4):857-72
references: 12202075
references: Neuroimage. 2003 Apr;18(4):837-46
references: 12725760
references: Cortex. 2001 Dec;37(5):730-3
references: 11804227
references: Brain. 1999 Dec;122 ( Pt 12):2337-44
references: 10581226
references: Cogn Psychol. 1988 Oct;20(4):439-62
references: 3191667
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2004 Jun;16(5):878-88
references: 15200714
references: Hum Brain Mapp. 2012 Oct;33(10):2322-33
references: 21976384
references: Nature. 1991 Jan 10;349(6305):154-6
references: 1986306
references: J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 2003 May;29(3):439-46
references: 12776754
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2008 Aug;20(8):1355-70
references: 18303972
references: Trends Cogn Sci. 2002 Sep 1;6(9):382
references: 12200180
references: Neuroimage. 2013 Jan 15;65:267-79
references: 23063843
references: Cereb Cortex. 2009 Aug;19(8):1905-14
references: 19068489
references: Front Hum Neurosci. 2012 Apr 20;6:84
references: 22529788
references: J Neurophysiol. 2010 Nov;104(5):2451-61
references: 20739599
references: Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1999 Dec;9(6):735-9
references: 10607647
references: Trends Cogn Sci. 2004 Nov;8(11):501-7
references: 15491904
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2007 May;19(5):855-65
references: 17488209
references: Curr Biol. 2006 Sep 19;16(18):1818-23
references: 16979559
references: Cogn Neuropsychol. 2005 May;22(3):480-94
references: 21038262
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2012 Dec;24(12):2348-62
references: 22971086
references: Cortex. 1991 Jun;27(2):153-67
references: 1879146
references: Curr Biol. 1994 Jul 1;4(7):604-10
references: 7953534
references: Cogn Neuropsychol. 2005 May;22(3):455-79
references: 21038261
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2012 Mar;24(3):736-48
references: 22098262
references: Neuropsychologia. 1979;17(1):49-54
references: 431809
references: Neuroimage. 2011 Aug 15;57(4):1561-71
references: 21664275
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2005 Aug;17(8):1293-305
references: 16197684
references: Neuroscience. 2010 Aug 11;169(1):246-58
references: 20420884
references: Neuroimage. 2001 Aug;14(2):268-83
references: 11467902
references: Neurosci Lett. 2006 Nov 27;409(1):19-23
references: 17046160
references: Neuroimage. 2007;36 Suppl 2:T128-41
references: 17499160
references: Front Psychol. 2010 Oct 04;1:150
references: 21833218
references: Trends Cogn Sci. 2005 Oct;9(10):489-95
references: 16126449
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2006 Oct;18(10):1607-15
references: 17014366
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2002 Jul 1;14(5):795-805
references: 12167263
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2008 Oct;20(10):1799-814
references: 18370598
references: Cereb Cortex. 2000 Feb;10(2):175-80
references: 10667985
references: Neuropsychologia. 2008;46(7):1915-26
references: 18328510
references: Psychophysiology. 1998 Mar;35(2):151-61
references: 9529941
references: Neuroimage. 2005 Feb 15;24(4):1058-67
references: 15670683
references: Brain Lang. 2001 Aug;78(2):143-68
references: 11500067
references: Neuroreport. 1997 Dec 1;8(17):3697-702
references: 9427353
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998 Feb 3;95(3):853-60
references: 9448251
references: Neuroreport. 1996 Feb 29;7(3):773-6
references: 8733742
references: Brain Lang. 2011 Dec;119(3):149-57
references: 21684590
references: Neuroimage. 2001 Feb;13(2):381-91
references: 11162278
references: Brain Res. 2012 Dec 7;1488:60-71
references: 23044471
references: J Neurosci. 1998 Aug 15;18(16):6539-48
references: 9698341
references: Psychon Bull Rev. 2002 Sep;9(3):558-65
references: 12412897
references: Q J Exp Psychol (Hove). 2008 Jun;61(6):905-19
references: 18470821
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2011 Aug;23(8):2068-78
references: 20849231
references: Neuron. 1997 Apr;18(4):591-8
references: 9136768
references: J Exp Psychol Gen. 1985 Sep;114(3):311-41
references: 3161979
references: Neuroreport. 1998 Mar 30;9(5):803-8
references: 9579669
references: Neuropsychologia. 1999 Aug;37(9):1029-40
references: 10468366
references: Neuropsychologia. 2011 Apr;49(5):1105-1127
references: 21192959
references: Science. 2003 Jul 18;301(5631):384-6
references: 12869765
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2005 Dec;17(12):1855-70
references: 16356324
references: Neuroimage. 2002 Mar;15(3):647-60
references: 11848708
references: Front Psychol. 2011 Sep 15;2:227
references: 21954387
references: Cereb Cortex. 2007 Aug;17(8):1812-20
references: 17060365
references: Cereb Cortex. 1999 Jul-Aug;9(5):497-506
references: 10450894
references: Acta Psychol (Amst). 1999 Sep;102(2-3):247-64
references: 10504883
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2001 Oct 1;13(7):910-9
references: 11595094
references: Neuropsychologia. 2012 Dec;50(14):3403-9
references: 22982513
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2005 Feb;17(2):273-81
references: 15811239
references: Neuroimage. 2008 Nov 1;43(2):358-67
references: 18771737
references: Neuron. 2004 Jan 22;41(2):301-7
references: 14741110
references: Neuroimage. 2010 Dec;53(4):1318-25
references: 20619347
references: Nature. 1995 May 4;375(6526):54-8
references: 7723842
references: Cogn Neuropsychol. 2005 May;22(3):348-63
references: 21038255
references: Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 2005 Aug;24(3):355-63
references: 16099349
references: Q J Exp Psychol (Hove). 2007 Jul;60(7):976-90
references: 17616914
references: Cogn Neuropsychol. 2003 May 1;20(3):451-86
references: 20957580
references: Brain Lang. 2013 May;125(2):203-14
references: 22632813
references: Neuroimage. 2002 Apr;15(4):1003-14
references: 11906240
references: Brain. 1996 Feb;119 ( Pt 1):89-100
references: 8624697
references: Neuropsychologia. 2002;40(2):119-30
references: 11640935
references: Behav Brain Sci. 1999 Aug;22(4):577-609; discussion 610-60
references: 11301525
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2012 Nov;24(11):2237-47
references: 22849399
references: Brain Lang. 2004 May;89(2):385-92
references: 15068922
references: Brain Lang. 2010 Mar;112(3):159-66
references: 19819001
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 1999 Jul;11(4):383-98
references: 10471847
references: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2005 Jul;6(7):576-82
references: 15959465
references: Eur J Neurosci. 2005 Feb;21(3):793-7
references: 15733097
references: Hum Brain Mapp. 2002 Feb;15(2):124-34
references: 11835603
references: Percept Psychophys. 1983 Nov;34(5):409-20
references: 6657445
references: Neuroimage. 2002 Dec;17(4):1693-704
references: 12498743
references: Cereb Cortex. 2010 Feb;20(2):468-78
references: 19546154
references: Cognition. 2010 Jan;114(1):96-104
references: 19818435
references: Neuroreport. 2001 Aug 8;12(11):2519-25
references: 11496141
references: Cereb Cortex. 2006 Aug;16(8):1193-201
references: 16251506
references: Brain Res. 2010 Mar 8;1318:122-32
references: 20053347
references: Cognition. 1980 Mar;8(1):1-71
references: 7363578
references: Nature. 2003 Jun 19;423(6942):866-9
references: 12815431
references: Nature. 1996 Feb 15;379(6566):649-52
references: 8628399
references: J Neurophysiol. 2002 Jul;88(1):514-9
references: 12091573
references: Cogn Psychol. 1987 Apr;19(2):178-241
references: 3581757
references: Cortex. 1990 Jun;26(2):177-88
references: 2387155
references: J Physiol Paris. 2008 Jan-May;102(1-3):59-70
references: 18448316
references: Mem Cognit. 1973 Sep;1(3):246-50
references: 24214553
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2005 Jun;17(6):884-92
references: 15969907
references: PLoS One. 2009;4(2):e4508
references: 19240793
references: Neurosci Lett. 2011 Apr 15;493(3):112-5
references: 21335059
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2010 Oct;22(10):2387-400
references: 19925195
references: Psychol Sci. 2011 Jul;22(7):849-54
references: 21705521
references: Cortex. 2004 Feb;40(1):197-9
references: 15174484
references: Neuroimage. 2008 Nov 15;43(3):634-44
references: 18786644
references: Brain Lang. 2010 Jan;112(1):54-76
references: 18996582
references: J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 1994 Aug;20(4):709-30
references: 8083630
references: Brain Cogn. 2003 Apr;51(3):368-71
references: 12727191
references: Neuropsychologia. 1997 May;35(5):725-30
references: 9153035
references: Neuroreport. 1998 Apr 20;9(6):1127-32
references: 9601680
references: Neuropsychologia. 2009 Jan;47(2):388-96
references: 18930749
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2003 Oct 1;15(7):1002-18
references: 14614811
references: Brain Cogn. 2003 Jul;52(2):135-43
references: 12821095
references: Neuroimage. 2010 Jan 1;49(1):782-93
references: 19660559
references: Brain Res. 2006 Jul 26;1101(1):102-9
references: 16782071
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2004 Apr;16(3):374-81
references: 15072673
references: Neuroimage. 1999 Aug;10(2):216-24
references: 10417254
references: Behav Brain Sci. 1997 Mar;20(1):1-19; discussion 19-55
references: 10096994