title: Climate change, air pollution and extreme events leading to increasing prevalence of allergic respiratory diseases.
abstract: The prevalence of asthma and allergic diseases has increased dramatically during the past few decades not only in industrialized countries. Urban air pollution from motor vehicles has been indicated as one of the major risk factors responsible for this increase.Although genetic factors are important in the development of asthma and allergic diseases, the rising trend can be explained only in changes occurred in the environment. Despite some differences in the air pollution profile and decreasing trends of some key air pollutants, air quality is an important concern for public health in the cities throughout the world.Due to climate change, air pollution patterns are changing in several urbanized areas of the world, with a significant effect on respiratory health.The observational evidence indicates that recent regional changes in climate, particularly temperature increases, have already affected a diverse set of physical and biological systems in many parts of the world. Associations between thunderstorms and asthma morbidity in pollinosis subjects have been also identified in multiple locations around the world.Allergens patterns are also changing in response to climate change and air pollution can modify the allergenic potential of pollens especially in presence of specific weather conditions.The underlying mechanisms of all these interactions are not well known yet. The consequences on health vary from decreases in lung function to allergic diseases, new onset of diseases, and exacerbation of chronic respiratory diseases.Factor clouding the issue is that laboratory evaluations do not reflect what happens during natural exposition, when atmospheric pollution mixtures in polluted cities are inhaled. In addition, it is important to recall that an individual's response to pollution exposure depends on the source and components of air pollution, as well as meteorological conditions. Indeed, some air pollution-related incidents with asthma aggravation do not depend only on the increased production of air pollution, but rather on atmospheric factors that favour the accumulation of air pollutants at ground level.Considering these aspects governments worldwide and international organizations such as the World Health Organization and the European Union are facing a growing problem of the respiratory effects induced by gaseous and particulate pollutants arising from motor vehicle emissions.
authors: Division of Respiratory and Allergic Diseases, HighSpecialityHospital A, Cardarelli, Department of Respiratory Diseases, Napoli, Italy. gdamatomail@gmail.com.
authors: Gennaro
authors: G
authors: D'Amato
authors: Carlos E
authors: CE
authors: Baena-Cagnani
authors: Lorenzo
authors: L
authors: Cecchi
authors: Isabella
authors: I
authors: Annesi-Maesano
authors: Carlos
authors: C
authors: Nunes
authors: Ignacio
authors: I
authors: Ansotegui
authors: Maria
authors: M
authors: D'Amato
authors: Gennaro
authors: G
authors: Liccardi
authors: Matteo
authors: M
authors: Sofia
authors: Walter G
authors: WG
authors: Canonica
references: Eur Respir J. 2009 Aug;34(2):295-302
references: 19251790
references: Clin Exp Allergy. 2000 May;30(5):628-36
references: 10792353
references: J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol. 2000 May-Jun;10(3):123-8
references: 10923585
references: Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 2003 May;131(1):1-13
references: 12759483
references: Allergy. 2011 Nov;66(11):1510-1
references: 21884532
references: Occup Environ Med. 2007 Jan;64(1):8-16
references: 16912084
references: JAMA. 2003 Oct 8;290(14):1859-67
references: 14532314
references: Int J Biometeorol. 2005 Sep;50(1):48-56
references: 15846521
references: Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2010 Mar;104(3):215-22
references: 20377111
references: Clin Exp Allergy. 1994 Mar;24(3):210-9
references: 7726889
references: Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2009 Sep;9(5):384-90
references: 19671382
references: Clin Exp Allergy. 1993 May;23(5):354-9
references: 8334534
references: Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2009 Aug 1;180(3):265-72
references: 19447899
references: Thorax. 2001 Jun;56(6):468-71
references: 11359963
references: Eur Ann Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013 May;45(3):116-7
references: 23862404
references: Allergy. 2007 Jan;62(1):11-6
references: 17156336
references: Clin Exp Allergy. 2004 Oct;34(10):1507-13
references: 15479264
references: Med J Aust. 1992 Jun 15;156(12):834-7
references: 1603007
references: Clin Exp Allergy. 1993 Jun;23(6):484-92
references: 8369975
references: Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 1998 Aug;116(4):253-60
references: 9693274
references: Eur Respir J. 2007 May;29(5):879-88
references: 17251230
references: Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2009 Mar 1;179(5):383-9
references: 19060232
references: Environ Health Perspect. 2008 Aug;116(8):1077-84
references: 18709160
references: Clin Exp Allergy. 1997 Jul;27(7):725-36
references: 9249264
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008 Sep;122(3):443-53; quiz 454-5
references: 18774380
references: Monaldi Arch Chest Dis. 1999 Dec;54(6):470-4
references: 10695313
references: Lancet. 2007 Sep 29;370(9593):1175-87
references: 17868820
references: Lancet. 2002 Feb 2;359(9304):386-91
references: 11844508
references: Environ Health. 2009 Apr 16;8:17
references: 19371435
references: Lancet. 1998 Apr 25;351(9111):1225-32
references: 9643741
references: BMJ. 1994 Jul 9;309(6947):131-2
references: 8038664
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007 Sep;120(3):610-7
references: 17624415
references: Clin Exp Allergy. 2008 Aug;38(8):1264-74
references: 18537982
references: Eur Respir J. 2000 Jul;16(1):3-8
references: 10933077
references: BMJ. 1993 Sep 4;307(6904):596-600
references: 7691304
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004 Nov;114(5):1116-23
references: 15536419
references: Epidemiology. 2005 Nov;16(6):737-43
references: 16222162
references: Lancet. 1985 Jul 27;2(8448):199-204
references: 2862383
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1997 Mar;99(3):314-22
references: 9058686
references: Eur Respir J. 2002 Sep;20(3):763-76
references: 12358357
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008 Feb;121(2):537-8; author reply 538
references: 18155276
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012 Jan;129(1):3-11; quiz 12-3
references: 22196520
references: BMJ. 1996 Mar 9;312(7031):604-7
references: 8595333
references: Allergy. 2001 Dec;56(12):1109-11
references: 11736737
references: Environ Health Perspect. 2011 Apr;119(4):446-54
references: 20961824
references: J Epidemiol Community Health. 2008 Mar;62(3):209-15
references: 18272735
references: Environ Res. 1999 Feb;80(2 Pt 1):110-21
references: 10092402
references: Eur Respir Rev. 2012 Jun 1;21(124):82-7
references: 22654079
references: Clin Exp Allergy. 2007 Nov;37(11):1632-40
references: 17877765
references: Allergy. 2007 Sep;62(9):976-90
references: 17521313
references: Thorax. 2007 Nov;62(11):957-63
references: 17517830
references: Thorax. 1997 Aug;52(8):669-70
references: 9337822
references: Allergy. 1998 Jun;53(6):567-78
references: 9689338
references: Thorax. 2008 Jul;63(7):659-60
references: 18587040
references: BMJ. 1996 Mar 9;312(7031):601-4
references: 8595332
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002 Jan;109(1):51-6
references: 11799365
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005 Feb;115(2):221-8; quiz 229
references: 15696072
references: Respirology. 2012 Feb;17(2):201-12
references: 22126432
references: Ciba Found Symp. 1997;206:122-34; discussion 134-9, 157-9
references: 9257009
references: Clin Exp Allergy. 2002 Oct;32(10):1391-3
references: 12372114
references: Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2006 Jan;96(1):86-91
references: 16440538
references: Lancet. 2007 Oct 6;370(9594):1264-81
references: 17868819
references: Clin Exp Allergy. 2005 Sep;35(9):1113-24
references: 16164436