title: Neuromuscular ultrasound for evaluation of the diaphragm.
abstract: Neuromuscular clinicians are often asked to evaluate the diaphragm for diagnostic and prognostic purposes. Traditionally, this evaluation is accomplished through history, physical exam, fluoroscopic sniff test, nerve conduction studies, and electromyography (EMG). Nerve conduction studies and EMG in this setting are challenging, uncomfortable, and can cause serious complications, such as pneumothorax. Neuromuscular ultrasound has emerged as a non-invasive technique that can be used in the structural and functional assessment of the diaphragm. In this study we review different techniques for assessing the diaphragm using neuromuscular ultrasound and the application of these techniques to enhance diagnosis and prognosis by neuromuscular clinicians.
authors: Department of Neurology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Reynolds M, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157, USA. asarwal@wakehealth.edu
authors: Aarti
authors: A
authors: Sarwal
authors: Francis O
authors: FO
authors: Walker
authors: Michael S
authors: MS
authors: Cartwright
mesh_terms: D003964:Diaphragm / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging* / Q000294:innervation; D004452:Echocardiography; D004576:Electromyography; D006801:Humans; D007366:Intercostal Muscles / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging; D009420:Nervous System / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D012129:Respiratory Function Tests; D012132:Respiratory Muscles / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000294:innervation; D012133:Respiratory Paralysis / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000601:surgery; D020521:Stroke / Q000150:complications / Q000503:physiopathology
references: Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2006 Sep;7(5):491-2
references: 16960537
references: J Appl Physiol (1985). 1989 Oct;67(4):1560-8
references: 2676955
references: Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg. 2012 Sep;15(3):505-8
references: 22691375
references: Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002 Dec 1;166(11):1461-9
references: 12406839
references: Anesth Analg. 2001 Mar;92(3):755-61
references: 11226114
references: Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2007 Sep;32(3):449-56
references: 17658265
references: J Ultrasound Med. 2001 Jun;20(6):597-604
references: 11400933
references: J Ultrasound Med. 2006 Feb;25(2):225-32
references: 16439786
references: N Engl J Med. 2012 Mar 8;366(10):932-42
references: 22397655
references: Pediatr Radiol. 1994;24(8):564-8
references: 7724277
references: Radiology. 1984 Oct;153(1):33-6
references: 6473801
references: J Biomech. 1987;20(3):251-60
references: 3495536
references: Chest. 1992 Dec;102(6):1683-6
references: 1359958
references: Can J Anaesth. 1997 Jul;44(7):739-44
references: 9232305
references: Eur J Heart Fail. 1999 Aug;1(3):297-300
references: 10935679
references: Radiology. 1995 Mar;194(3):879-84
references: 7862995
references: J Ultrasound Med. 2004 Feb;23(2):255-60
references: 14992363
references: J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1995 Jun;58(6):738-41
references: 7608679
references: Ann Thorac Surg. 2006 May;81(5):1853-7; discussion 1857
references: 16631685
references: Pediatr Pulmonol. 1994 Sep;18(3):187-93
references: 7800436
references: Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2006 Sep;7(5):441-4
references: 16738495
references: Clin Radiol. 1992 Dec;46(6):405-7
references: 1493655
references: Radiology. 1975 Jan;114(1):141-4
references: 1208854
references: Crit Care Med. 2011 Dec;39(12):2760-1
references: 22094504
references: J Appl Physiol (1985). 1987 Jan;62(1):180-6
references: 3558178
references: Thorax. 1994 Dec;49(12):1278
references: 7878575
references: Spinal Cord. 2009 Nov;47(11):832-4
references: 19399025
references: J Ultrasound Med. 1983 Jun;2(6):243-9
references: 6876255
references: Thorax. 1995 Nov;50(11):1157-61
references: 8553271
references: Chest. 2009 Feb;135(2):401-407
references: 18753469
references: Clin Radiol. 1995 Feb;50(2):95-8
references: 7867276
references: J Radiol. 1997 Aug;78(8):563-8
references: 9537172
references: Thorax. 1994 May;49(5):500-3
references: 8016774
references: Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994 Jun;149(6):1539-44
references: 8004310
references: Neuropediatrics. 1995 Oct;26(5):281-4
references: 8552223
references: Radiographics. 2012 Mar-Apr;32(2):E51-70
references: 22411950
references: Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 1993;7(7):342-6
references: 8396949
references: Chest. 2009 Feb;135(2):391-400
references: 19017880
references: Thorax. 1994 Sep;49(9):885-9
references: 7940428
references: Radiology. 1983 Jan;146(1):141-4
references: 6849035
references: Muscle Nerve. 2008 Dec;38(6):1623-6
references: 19016552
references: J Cardiothorac Surg. 2010 Nov 15;5:111
references: 21078140
references: Pediatr Radiol. 2005 Jul;35(7):661-7
references: 15776227
references: J Clin Ultrasound. 1985 Oct;13(8):539-43
references: 3934216
references: Anesth Analg. 2010 May 1;110(5):1349-54
references: 20418298
references: Nature. 1982 Oct 14;299(5884):631-3
references: 6981776
references: Chest. 2008 Mar;133(3):737-43
references: 18198248
references: Eur Respir J. 2000 Mar;15(3):596-9
references: 10759459
references: Thorax. 1997 May;52(5):472-5
references: 9176541
references: Clin Radiol. 1966 Jan;17(1):79-83
references: 4221861
references: Am J Emerg Med. 2004 Nov;22(7):601-4
references: 15666270
references: Congenit Heart Dis. 2010 Nov-Dec;5(6):565-72
references: 21106016
references: Am Rev Respir Dis. 1979 Feb;119(2 Pt 2):31-2
references: 426349
references: Radiographics. 1990 Nov;10(6):1019-30
references: 2259759
references: Chest. 2011 Jul;140(1):191-197
references: 21349932
references: Crit Care Med. 2011 Dec;39(12):2627-30
references: 21705883
references: Eur J Heart Fail. 2001 Mar;3(2):183-7
references: 11246055
references: Chest. 1990 May;97(5):1110-4
references: 2331905
references: AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1995 Feb;164(2):510
references: 7840008
references: Rev Med Interne. 1995;16(11):819-26
references: 8570938
references: Radiographics. 2010 Nov;30(7):1797-817
references: 21057121
references: Intensive Care Med. 2003 Jan;29(1):103-10
references: 12528030
references: Thorax. 1984 Aug;39(8):624-7
references: 6474391
references: Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 May;155(5):1570-4
references: 9154859