title: Modeling cadmium exposures in low- and high-exposure areas in Thailand.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Previous U.S. population modeling studies have reported that urinary cadmium (Cd) excretion patterns differ with age, sex, and dietary exposure; associations between Cd exposures and health outcomes also have differed by age and sex. Therefore, it is important to test models used to estimate Cd exposures across an expanded Cd-exposure range.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  We estimated relative Cd exposures from both diet and smoking in low- and high-exposure scenarios to provide data for improving risk assessment calculations.
  
  
  METHODS
  We used a Cd toxicokinetic-based model to estimate Cd exposures based on urinary Cd levels measured for 399 persons in a low-exposure area (Bangkok) and 6,747 persons in a high-exposure area (Mae Sot) in Thailand.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In Bangkok, we estimated dietary Cd exposures of 50-56 µg/day for males and 21-27 µg/day for females 20-59 years of age who never smoked. In Mae Sot, we estimated dietary Cd exposures of 188-224 µg/day for males and 99-113 µg/day for females 20-59 years of age who never smoked. In Bangkok, we estimated Cd exposures from smoking to be 5.5-20.4 µg/day for male smokers 20-59 years of age. In Mae Sot, we estimated Cd exposures from smoking to be 9.8-26 µg/day for male heavy smokers and 26 µg/day for female heavy smokers.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study provides estimates of Cd exposures from diet and smoking in low- and high-exposure scenarios. Our findings suggest a relatively small safety margin between the established tolerable Cd reference exposure of 62 µg/day and exposure levels previously associated with evidence of kidney and bone effects in Mae Sot residents, where dietary Cd exposures among women were only 1.6-2.1 times the reference value.
authors: Centre for Kidney Disease Research, Princess Alexandra Hospital, University of Queensland School of Medicine, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. sj.satarug@yahoo.com.au
authors: Soisungwan
authors: S
authors: Satarug
authors: Witaya
authors: W
authors: Swaddiwudhipong
authors: Werawan
authors: W
authors: Ruangyuttikarn
authors: Muneko
authors: M
authors: Nishijo
authors: Patricia
authors: P
authors: Ruiz
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002104:Cadmium / Q000652:urine*; D004032:Diet; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D012016:Reference Values; D012907:Smoking / Q000652:urine; D013785:Thailand
chemical_list: D002104:Cadmium