title: Pharmacological interventions for phantom limb pain.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To review the mechanisms and current clinical application of pharmacological interventions for phantom limb pain.
  
  
  METHODS
  Both Chinese and English language literatures were searched using MEDLINE (1982 - 2011), Pubmed (1982 - 2011) and the Index of Chinese Language Literature (1982 - 2011).
  
  
  METHODS
  Data from published articles about pharmacological management of phantom limb pain in recent domestic and foreign literature were selected. Data extraction Data were mainly extracted from 96 articles which are listed in the reference section of this review.
  
  
  RESULTS
  By reviewing the mechanisms and current clinical application of pharmacological interventions for phantom limb pain, including anticonvulsants, antidepressants, local anaesthetics, N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, tramadol, opioids, calcitonin, capsaicin, beta-adrenergic blockers, clonidine, muscle relaxants, and emerging drugs, we examined the efficacy and safety of these medications, outlined the limitations and future directions.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Although there is lack of evidence-based consensus guidelines for the pharmacological management of phantom limb pain, we recommend tricyclic antidepressants, gabapentin, tramadol, opioids, local anaesthetics and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists as the rational options for the treatment of phantom limb pain.
authors: Department of Anaesthesiology, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310022, China. weholmes@hotmail.com
authors: Jun
authors: J
authors: Fang
authors: Yan-hong
authors: YH
authors: Lian
authors: Kang-jie
authors: KJ
authors: Xie
authors: Shu-nü
authors: SN
authors: Cai
mesh_terms: D000700:Analgesics / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000927:Anticonvulsants / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000928:Antidepressive Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use; D006801:Humans; D010591:Phantom Limb / Q000188:drug therapy*; D014147:Tramadol / Q000627:therapeutic use
chemical_list: D000700:Analgesics; D000701:Analgesics, Opioid; D000927:Anticonvulsants; D000928:Antidepressive Agents; D014147:Tramadol