title: Multiple insecticide resistance mechanisms in Anopheles gambiae s.l. populations from Cameroon, Central Africa.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Increasing incidence of DDT and pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles mosquitoes is seen as a limiting factor for malaria vector control. The current study aimed at an in-depth characterization of An. gambiae s.l. resistance to insecticides in Cameroon, in order to guide malaria vector control interventions.
  
  
  METHODS
  Anopheles gambiae s.l. mosquitoes were collected as larvae and pupae from six localities spread throughout the four main biogeographical domains of Cameroon and reared to adults in insectaries. Standard WHO insecticide susceptibility tests were carried out with 4% DDT, 0.75% permethrin and 0.05% deltamethrin. Mortality rates and knockdown times (kdt50 and kdt95) were determined and the effect of pre-exposure to the synergists DEF, DEM and PBO was assessed. Tested mosquitoes were identified to species and molecular forms (M or S) using PCR-RFLP. The hot ligation method was used to depict kdr mutations and biochemical assays were conducted to assess detoxifying enzyme activities.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The An. arabiensis population from Pitoa was fully susceptible to DDT and permethrin (mortality rates>98%) and showed reduced susceptibility to deltamethrin. Resistance to DDT was widespread in An. gambiae s.s. populations and heterogeneous levels of susceptibility to permethrin and deltamethrin were observed. In many cases, prior exposure to synergists partially restored insecticide knockdown effect and increased mortality rates, suggesting a role of detoxifying enzymes in increasing mosquito survival upon challenge by pyrethroids and, to a lower extent DDT. The distribution of kdr alleles suggested a major role of kdr-based resistance in the S form of An. gambiae. In biochemical tests, all but one mosquito population overexpressed P450 activity, whereas baseline GST activity was low and similar in all field mosquito populations and in the control.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In Cameroon, multiple resistance mechanisms segregate in the S form of An. gambiae resulting in heterogeneous resistance profiles, whereas in the M form and An. arabiensis insecticide tolerance seems to be essentially mediated by enzyme-based detoxification. Synergists partially restored susceptibility to pyrethroid insecticides, and might help mitigate the impact of vector resistance in the field. However, additional vector control tools are needed to further impact on malaria transmission in such settings.
authors: Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale, PO Box 288, Yaoundé, Cameroon. philino07@yahoo.fr
authors: Philippe
authors: P
authors: Nwane
authors: Josiane
authors: J
authors: Etang
authors: Mouhamadou
authors: M
authors: Chouaїbou
authors: Jean Claude
authors: JC
authors: Toto
authors: Alphonsine
authors: A
authors: Koffi
authors: Rémy
authors: R
authors: Mimpfoundi
authors: Frédéric
authors: F
authors: Simard
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000852:Anopheles / Q000145:classification / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000235:genetics; D002163:Cameroon; D003634:DDT / Q000494:pharmacology; D018432:Drug Resistance, Multiple; D008658:Inactivation, Metabolic; D007305:Insecticide Resistance; D007306:Insecticides / Q000494:pharmacology*; D007814:Larva / Q000187:drug effects; D009570:Nitriles / Q000494:pharmacology; D026023:Permethrin / Q000494:pharmacology; D016133:Polymerase Chain Reaction; D012150:Polymorphism, Restriction Fragment Length; D011679:Pupa / Q000187:drug effects; D011722:Pyrethrins / Q000494:pharmacology; D016019:Survival Analysis
chemical_list: D007306:Insecticides; D009570:Nitriles; D011722:Pyrethrins; C017180:decamethrin; D026023:Permethrin; D003634:DDT