title: Emasculation increases seed set in the bird-pollinated hermaphrodite Kniphofia linearifolia (Xanthorrhoeaceae): evidence for sexual conflict?
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Hermaphroditism in plants can lead to gender conflicts, such as pollen discounting-the loss of siring opportunities following self-pollination, and ovule discounting-the loss of seed production opportunities when self-pollen tubes disable ovules through early inbreeding depression or late-acting self-incompatibility. If ovules are discounted by self-pollination, it can be predicted that emasculation (removal of self-pollen) should increase seed production, as long as pollinators are not deterred by emasculation. •
  
  
  METHODS
  Using the hermaphroditic Kniphofia linearifolia, which belongs to a lineage known to possess late-acting self-incompatibility, we performed hand-pollinations with either self- or cross-pollen and recorded pollen tube growth and seed production. We paired experimentally emasculated plants with non-emasculated controls and quantified pollinator visitation rates, fruit, and seed set in both groups. •
  
  
  RESULTS
  Ovules penetrated by tubes from self-pollen uniformly failed to develop into seeds, as expected from ovarian self-incompatibility (or strong early inbreeding depression). Experimental emasculation had no effect on the rate of visitation by birds, the primary pollinators of this species, but led to increased rejection by bees, which are secondary pollinators. Despite reducing visitation by some pollinators, emasculation led to increased seed production and reduced rates of seed abortion. •
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results show that female performance in hermaphroditic flowers can be enhanced when flowers are emasculated, even if the overall number of pollinator visits is decreased. The most likely explanation for this effect of emasculation is that it reduces ovule discounting arising from pollinator-mediated self-pollination.
authors: School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X01, Scottsville, Pietermaritzburg 3209, South Africa. duffyk@tcd.ie
authors: Karl J
authors: KJ
authors: Duffy
authors: Kirsten L
authors: KL
authors: Patrick
authors: Steven D
authors: SD
authors: Johnson
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001516:Bees / Q000502:physiology; D001717:Birds / Q000502:physiology*; D001947:Breeding; D057850:Hermaphroditic Organisms / Q000502:physiology*; D019684:Magnoliopsida / Q000502:physiology*; D008856:Microscopy, Fluorescence; D011058:Pollen / Q000502:physiology*; D053205:Pollen Tube / Q000502:physiology; D054817:Pollination / Q000502:physiology*; D012639:Seeds / Q000502:physiology*