title: Contribution of gastroenteropancreatic appetite hormones to protein-induced satiety.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Effects of protein intake on appetite-regulating hormones and their dynamics are unclear.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  We investigated the satiating effects of meals with varying protein contents and whether there was an effect of dose on appetite-regulating hormones and appetite ratings.
  
  
  METHODS
  Twenty-five men [mean ± SD age: 30.0 ± 8.7 y; body mass index (BMI; in kg/m(2)): 25.9 ± 4.7] participated in the 3-way, randomized, double-blind crossover study. Test meals were isocaloric with 30% of energy from fat and protein content adjusted at the expense of carbohydrate. Test meals were normal protein (NP; 14% of energy from protein), medium-high protein (MHP; 25% of energy from protein), and high protein (HP, 50% of energy from protein). Appetite ratings and blood samples were assessed every 0.5 h for 4 h. An ad libitum lunch was served 4 h after the meal.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Protein increased dose-dependently glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), peptide YY (PYY) 3-36, and glucagon; MHP produced 10%, 7%, and 47% greater responses, respectively; and HP produced 20%, 14%, and 116% greater responses, respectively, than did NP (P < 0.03). Compared with NP, HP increased insulin and cholecystokinin and decreased ghrelin and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (P < 0.05). Satiety and fullness dose-dependently increased by 7% and 6% for MHP and 16% and 19% for HP compared with NP (P < 0.001). Hunger and prospective consumption dose-dependently decreased by 15% and 13% for MHP and by 25% and 26% for HP compared with NP (P < 0.0003). There was a combined effect of GLP-1 and PYY 3-36 (P = 0.03) next to the additive effect of GLP-1 (P = 0.006) on the composite appetite score. No difference was shown in ad libitum energy intake.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Protein dose-dependently increased satiety and GLP-1, PYY 3-36, and glucagon, which may, at least in part, be responsible for the satiety-stimulating effect of protein. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01561235.
authors: Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
authors: Anita
authors: A
authors: Belza
authors: Christian
authors: C
authors: Ritz
authors: Mejse Q
authors: MQ
authors: Sørensen
authors: Jens J
authors: JJ
authors: Holst
authors: Jens F
authors: JF
authors: Rehfeld
authors: Arne
authors: A
authors: Astrup
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001066:Appetite / Q000502:physiology*; D001786:Blood Glucose / Q000032:analysis; D002766:Cholecystokinin / Q000097:blood / Q000502:physiology; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D004044:Dietary Proteins / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D004311:Double-Blind Method; D002149:Energy Intake; D005768:Gastrointestinal Hormones / Q000097:blood / Q000502:physiology*; D054439:Ghrelin / Q000097:blood / Q000502:physiology; D005934:Glucagon / Q000097:blood / Q000502:physiology; D052216:Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 / Q000097:blood / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D006815:Hunger / Q000502:physiology; D007328:Insulin / Q000097:blood / Q000502:physiology; D008297:Male; D010187:Pancreatic Hormones / Q000097:blood / Q000502:physiology*; D019894:Peptide YY / Q000097:blood / Q000502:physiology; D012527:Satiation / Q000502:physiology*; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D001786:Blood Glucose; D004044:Dietary Proteins; D005768:Gastrointestinal Hormones; D054439:Ghrelin; D007328:Insulin; D010187:Pancreatic Hormones; D019894:Peptide YY; D052216:Glucagon-Like Peptide 1; D005934:Glucagon; D002766:Cholecystokinin