title: Carbohydrate intake as a risk factor for biliary sludge and stones during pregnancy.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  High carbohydrate intake has been linked to insulin resistance, obesity, and abnormal serum lipid profiles-conditions which favor gallstone formation.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of dietary carbohydrate intake on incident gallbladder disease, defined as biliary sludge and stones, during pregnancy.
  
  
  METHODS
  We prospectively studied 3070 pregnant women who underwent serial gallbladder ultrasound during pregnancy and at 4 to 6 weeks postpartum. All women had at least 2 study ultrasounds for comparison. A semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire was completed by subjects in the early third trimester. Multivariate logistic regression was performed to assess the risk of incident gallbladder disease across quartiles total and individual carbohydrate and individual carbohydrates (starch, sucrose, galactose, fructose, and lactose) intake.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The cumulative incidence of gallbladder disease was 10.2% by 4 to 6 weeks postpartum. The risk of incident gallbladder disease during pregnancy was significantly higher among women in the highest quartile of total carbohydrate intake versus those in the lowest quartile (odds ratio 2.09, 95% confidence interval 1.02-4.27). High intake of fructose was associated with increased risk even after additional adjustment for total carbohydrate intake (odds ratio 2.18, 95% confidence interval 1.23-3.86, comparing highest with lowest quartile). No association was found between the intake of starch, sucrose, lactose, or galactose and the risk of incident gallbladder disease.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  High consumption of total carbohydrate and fructose may increase the risk of developing gallbladder disease during pregnancy. Dietary modification during pregnancy might reduce gallstone incidence during this time period.
authors: Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
authors: Alan C
authors: AC
authors: Wong
authors: Cynthia W
authors: CW
authors: Ko
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001646:Bile / Q000378:metabolism*; D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000009:adverse effects*; D005260:Female; D005632:Fructose / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000009:adverse effects; D042882:Gallstones / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000209:etiology; D006801:Humans; D015994:Incidence; D016015:Logistic Models; D015999:Multivariate Analysis; D011247:Pregnancy; D011248:Pregnancy Complications / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000209:etiology; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates; D005632:Fructose