title: Association of menstrual phase with smoking behavior, mood and menstrual phase-associated symptoms among young Japanese women smokers.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Previous studies of the relationship between the menstrual phases and smoking behavior have been problematic, so the association of menstrual phases with smoking behavior and correlations among smoking, psychological and physical conditions in each phase of the menstrual cycle are unclear.
  
  
  METHODS
  To accurately examine the association between menstrual phases and the amount of smoking (number of cigarettes smoked and breath CO concentration), craving of smoking on visual analogue scale (VAS), depression in the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) Scale, and menstrual phase-associated symptoms in the Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MDQ), we improved various methodological issues, specifically, 1) Ovulation was confirmed by measuring the basal body temperature and identifying a urinary luteinizing hormone (LH) surge in two cycles; 2) The menstrual, follicular, and luteal phases were clearly defined for subjects with different menstrual cycles; 3) The breath CO concentration was measured every day. A notice was posted on public bulletin boards to recruit research subjects and twenty-nine young Japanese women smokers aged 19 to 25 years old were analyzed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The number of cigarettes smoked was greater and the CO concentration was higher in the luteal phase than in the follicular phase. The levels of craving for smoking (VAS), depressiveness (CES-D), and menstrual phase-associated symptoms (MDQ) in the menstrual and luteal phases were higher than those in the follicular phase. The mean score for CES-D was 16 points (the cut-off value in screening for depression) or higher in the menstrual (16.9 ± 8.2) and luteal phases (17.2 ± 8.4).The number of cigarettes smoked and CO concentration were significantly correlated with the levels of craving for smoking, depressiveness, and menstrual phase-associated symptoms in all phases except for MDQ scores in follicular phase. The amount of smoking in the luteal phase was most strongly correlated with these symptoms.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In the menstrual and luteal phases, young Japanese women smokers increased their amount of smoking and suffered from greater craving for smoking, depressiveness and menstrual phase-associated symptoms. The amount of smoking was correlated with these symptoms, but their cause-effect relationship has not been determined yet.
authors: Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, Morinomiya University of Medical Sciences, Osaka, Japan. sakai@morinomiya-u.ac.jp
authors: Hiroko
authors: H
authors: Sakai
authors: Kazutomo
authors: K
authors: Ohashi
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D015984:Causality; D015897:Comorbidity; D003863:Depression / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology; D005260:Female; D005498:Follicular Phase / Q000523:psychology; D006801:Humans; D007564:Japan / Q000453:epidemiology; D008183:Luteal Phase / Q000523:psychology; D008597:Menstrual Cycle / Q000523:psychology*; D019964:Mood Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology; D011293:Premenstrual Syndrome / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology; D057566:Self Report; D012907:Smoking / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology; D016540:Smoking Cessation / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D013375:Substance Withdrawal Syndrome / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology; D016387:Women's Health; D055815:Young Adult