title: Cytokine markers as predictors of type of respiratory infection in patients during the influenza season.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The objective of this study is to characterize the cytokine response among patients presenting with an influenza-like illness who are infected with the influenza virus, a bacterial pneumonia, or another viral infection. We hypothesize that there are differences in proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in relation to cytokines associated with the humoral response during viral and bacterial respiratory infections.
  
  
  METHODS
  We enrolled adults who presented to an urban academic emergency department during the 2008 to 2011 influenza seasons with symptoms of fever and a cough. Subjects had nasal aspirates tested by viral culture, and peripheral blood drawn to quantify cytokine concentrations. Cytokine concentrations were compared between groups using the Wilcoxon rank sum test, and receiver operating characteristic curves were calculated.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A total of 80 patients were enrolled: 40 with influenza infection, 14 patients with a bacterial pneumonia as determined by infiltrate on chest x-ray, and 26 patients negative for influenza infection and infiltrate. There were differences between the bacterial pneumonia group, and all other viral infections grouped together with regard to interleukin (IL) 4 (2.66 vs 16.77 pg/mL, P < .001), IL-5 (20.57 vs 57.57 pg/mL, P = .006), IL-6 (403.06 vs 52.69 pg/mL, P < .001), granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (18.26 vs 66.80 pg/mL, P < .001), and interferon γ (0.0 vs 830.36 pg/mL, P < .001). Interleukin 10 concentrations were elevated in patients with influenza (88.69 pg/mL) compared with all other groups combined (39.19 pg/mL; P = .003).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Cytokines IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and interferon γ may serve as distinct markers of bacterial infection in patients with an influenza-like illness, whereas IL-10 is uniquely elevated in influenza patients.
authors.affiliation: Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA. johnpharan@gmail.com
authors.forename: John Patrick
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Haran
authors.forename: Rachel
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Buglione-Corbett
authors.forename: Shan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Lu
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000097:blood; D016207:Cytokines / Q000097:blood*; D003937:Diagnosis, Differential; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D053118:Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype / Q000302:isolation & purification; D007251:Influenza, Human / Q000097:blood / Q000175:diagnosis*; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D018410:Pneumonia, Bacterial / Q000097:blood / Q000175:diagnosis*; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012372:ROC Curve; D012720:Severity of Illness Index; D018709:Statistics, Nonparametric; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D016207:Cytokines