title: Real-time control of hind limb functional electrical stimulation using feedback from dorsal root ganglia recordings.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Functional electrical stimulation (FES) approaches often utilize an open-loop controller to drive state transitions. The addition of sensory feedback may allow for closed-loop control that can respond effectively to perturbations and muscle fatigue.
  
  
  METHODS
  We evaluated the use of natural sensory nerve signals obtained with penetrating microelectrode arrays in lumbar dorsal root ganglia (DRG) as real-time feedback for closed-loop control of FES-generated hind limb stepping in anesthetized cats.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Leg position feedback was obtained in near real-time at 50 ms intervals by decoding the firing rates of more than 120 DRG neurons recorded simultaneously. Over 5 m of effective linear distance was traversed during closed-loop stepping trials in each of two cats. The controller compensated effectively for perturbations in the stepping path when DRG sensory feedback was provided. The presence of stimulation artifacts and the quality of DRG unit sorting did not significantly affect the accuracy of leg position feedback obtained from the linear decoding model as long as at least 20 DRG units were included in the model.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This work demonstrates the feasibility and utility of closed-loop FES control based on natural neural sensors. Further work is needed to improve the controller and electrode technologies and to evaluate long-term viability.
authors.affiliation: Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
authors.forename: Tim M
authors.initials: TM
authors.lastname: Bruns
authors.forename: Joost B
authors.initials: JB
authors.lastname: Wagenaar
authors.forename: Matthew J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Bauman
authors.forename: Robert A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Gaunt
authors.forename: Douglas J
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Weber
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D000818:Animals; D016477:Artifacts; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D002415:Cats; D003199:Computer Systems; D003627:Data Interpretation, Statistical; D004558:Electric Stimulation; D004567:Electrodes, Implanted; D025461:Feedback, Physiological / Q000502:physiology*; D005727:Ganglia, Spinal / Q000502:physiology*; D006614:Hindlimb / Q000502:physiology*; D008297:Male; D008839:Microelectrodes; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000294:innervation / Q000502:physiology; D011187:Posture / Q000502:physiology; D012815:Signal Processing, Computer-Assisted