title: Measuring the loss of consumer choice in mandatory health programmes using discrete choice experiments.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Economic evaluation of mandatory health programmes generally do not consider the utility impact of a loss of consumer choice upon implementation, despite evidence suggesting that consumers do value having the ability to choose.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The primary aim of this study was to explore whether the utility impact of a loss of consumer choice from implementing mandatory health programmes can be measured using discrete choice experiments (DCEs).
  
  
  METHODS
  Three case studies were used to test the methodology: fortification of bread-making flour with folate, mandatory influenza vaccination of children, and the banning of trans-fats. Attributes and levels were developed from a review of the literature. An orthogonal, fractional factorial design was used to select the profiles presented to respondents to allow estimation of main effects. Overall, each DCE consisted of 64 profiles which were allocated to four versions of 16 profiles. Each choice task compared two profiles, one being voluntary and the other being mandatory, plus a 'no policy' option, thus each respondent was presented with eight choice tasks. For each choice task, respondents were asked which health policy they most preferred and least preferred. Data was analysed using a mixed logit model with correlated coefficients (200 Halton draws). The compensating variation required for introducing a programme on a mandatory basis (versus achieving the same health impacts with a voluntary programme) that holds utility constant was estimated.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Responses were provided by 535 participants (a response rate of 83 %). For the influenza vaccination and folate fortification programmes, the results suggested that some level of compensation may be required for introducing the programme on a mandatory basis. Introducing a mandatory influenza vaccination programme required the highest compensation (Australian dollars [A$] 112.75, 95 % CI -60.89 to 286.39) compared with folate fortification (A$18.05, 95 % CI -3.71 to 39.80). No compensation was required for introducing the trans-fats programme (-A$0.22, 95 % CI -6.24 to 5.80) [year 2010 values]. In addition to the type of mandatory health programme, the compensation required was also found to be dependent on a number of other factors. In particular, the study found an association between the compensation required and stronger libertarian preferences.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  DCEs can be used to measure the utility impact of a loss of consumer choice. Excluding the utility impact of a loss of consumer choice from an economic evaluation taking a societal perspective may result in a sub-optimal, or incorrect, funding decision.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Health Economics Research and Evaluation CHERE, University of Technology, Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia. Bonny.parkinson@chere.uts.edu.au
authors.forename: Bonny
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Parkinson
authors.forename: Stephen
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Goodall
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Norman
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D001315:Australia; D001939:Bread / Q000032:analysis; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D002755:Choice Behavior; D003258:Consumer Behavior / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005260:Female; D005492:Folic Acid / Q000008:administration & dosage; D017048:Health Care Costs; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D037141:Mandatory Programs / Q000191:economics* / Q000458:organization & administration*; D008875:Middle Aged; D044242:Trans Fatty Acids; D014611:Vaccination; D035141:Voluntary Programs / Q000191:economics*; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D044242:Trans Fatty Acids; D005492:Folic Acid