title: A review of in vitro and in vivo models of oesophageal and gastric cancer.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Oesophageal and gastric cancers are leading causes of cancer-related mortality. In the era of targeted therapy and individualized treatment strategies, novel treatments for upper-gastrointestinal cancers are only just emerging compared to significant advances in other solid tumour types such as colorectal, breast and lung cancers. Clinical trials are investigating the value of established targeted agents for the treatment of oesophageal and gastric malignancies; however none are used in routine clinical practice.
  
  
  METHODS
  In this review we have looked at current in vitro and in vivo models of oesophageal and gastric cancers which may improve our understanding of the biology of these tumours and lead to the development of new preventative, diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We discuss the limitations of our current models and the challenges associated with research into these cancers.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The lack of appropriate models for drug development in oesophageal and gastric cancers has hindered the progress of targeted therapy in this field.
authors.affiliation: St Georges Hospital, Blackshaw Road, Tooting, London, SW170QT, UK.
authors.forename: Deborah
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Mukherji
authors.forename: Tim
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Benepal