title: The interaction of persistent pain and post-traumatic re-experiencing: a qualitative study in torture survivors.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  There are limited studies and few theoretical models addressing the interaction between pain and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, with none concerning this interaction in survivors of torture, who frequently report persistent pain.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  We aimed to explore the relationship between persistent pain and re-experiencing of traumatic events in survivors of torture.
  
  
  METHODS
  Nine torture survivors were interviewed about their experiences of pain and re-experiencing, and the results analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Levels of pain and post-traumatic stress were assessed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Four superordinate themes emerged, namely "pain is the enemy," "pain and intrusive memories are connected," "changed identity," and "resilience and resources." These themes showed a complex relationship between torture, pain, re-experiencing, and other aspects of individual experience, such as the multiple losses experienced by torture survivors. Both pain and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms were shown to have profound impacts on the everyday lives of participants.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results suggest that the relationship between pain and re-experiencing requires a broad model that considers the impact of a range of individual, social, and environmental factors on the interaction between pain and traumatic stress symptoms in survivors of torture. The study has clinical implications, most notably the need to attempt more integrated treatment of pain and traumatic symptoms where they occur together, and to consider the meaning and impact of pain when treating survivors of torture. Further investigation of the relationship between pain and traumatic stress symptoms in torture survivors is needed, as are studies of combined treatment for pain and trauma.
authors.affiliation: Department of Rehabilitation Psychology, Camden & Islington NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom. Electronic address: Bethanytaylor@candi.nhs.uk.
authors.forename: Bethany
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Taylor
authors.forename: Kenneth
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Carswell
authors.forename: Amanda C de C
authors.initials: AC
authors.lastname: Williams
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D059350:Chronic Pain / Q000150:complications / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000523:psychology*; D019548:Crime Victims / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D012720:Severity of Illness Index; D013313:Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic / Q000150:complications / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000523:psychology*; D017741:Survivors / Q000523:psychology*; D014104:Torture / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D006113:United Kingdom
keywords: PTSD; pain; refugees; torture