title: Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance: a bitter fight against evolution.
abstract: One of the most terrible consequences of Darwinian evolution is arguably the emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance, which is becoming a serious menace to modern societies. While spontaneous mutation, recombination and horizontal gene transfer are recognized as the main causes of this notorious phenomenon; recent research has raised awareness that sub-lethal concentrations of antibiotics can also foster resistance as an undesirable side-effect. They can produce genetic changes by different ways, including a raise of free radicals within the cell, induction of error-prone DNA-polymerases mediated by SOS response, imbalanced nucleotide metabolism or affect directly DNA. In addition to certain environmental conditions, subinhibitory concentrations of antimicrobials may increase, even more, the mutagenic effect of antibiotics. Here, we review the state of knowledge on antibiotics as promoters of antibiotic resistance.
authors.affiliation: Centro Nacional de Biotecnología CNB, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas CSIC, Darwin 3, Campus de la Universidad Autónoma, Cantoblanco-Madrid 28049, Spain.
authors.forename: Alexandro
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Rodríguez-Rojas
authors.forename: Jerónimo
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Rodríguez-Beltrán
authors.forename: Alejandro
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Couce
authors.forename: Jesús
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Blázquez
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents / Q000494:pharmacology*; D001419:Bacteria / Q000187:drug effects*; D024881:Drug Resistance, Bacterial; D022761:Gene Transfer, Horizontal; D006801:Humans; D009153:Mutagens / Q000494:pharmacology*; D009154:Mutation; D011995:Recombination, Genetic; D012641:Selection, Genetic
chemical_list: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents; D009153:Mutagens
keywords: Antibiotics; Evolution; Mutations; Resistance; Subinhibitory concentration