title: Integrons: Vehicles and pathways for horizontal dissemination in bacteria.
abstract: Integrons are genetic elements first described at the end of the 1980s. Although most integrons were initially described in human clinical isolates, they have now been identified in many non-clinical environments, such as water and soil. Integrons are present in ≈10% of the sequenced bacterial genomes and are frequently linked to mobile genetic elements (MGEs); particularly the class 1 integrons. Genetic linkage to a diverse set of MGEs facilitates horizontal transfer of class 1 integrons within and between bacterial populations and species. The mechanistic aspects limiting transfer of MGEs will therefore limit the transfer of class 1 integrons. However, horizontal movement due to genes provided in trans and homologous recombination can result in class 1 integron dynamics independent of MGEs. A key determinant for continued dissemination of class 1 integrons is the probability that transferred MGEs will be vertically inherited in the recipient bacterial population. Heritability depends both on genetic stability as well as the fitness costs conferred to the host. Here we review the factors known to govern the dissemination of class 1 integrons in bacteria.
authors.affiliation: Centre of Pharmaceutical Studies; Faculty of Pharmacy; University of Coimbra; Coimbra, Portugal ; Department of Pharmacy; Faculty of Health Sciences; University of Tromsø; Tromsø, Norway.
authors.forename: Sara
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Domingues
authors.forename: Gabriela J
authors.initials: GJ
authors.lastname: da Silva
authors.forename: Kaare M
authors.initials: KM
authors.lastname: Nielsen
keywords: antibiotic resistance; class 1 integron; conjugation; homologous recombination; horizontal or lateral gene transfer; mobile genetic elements; transduction; transformation; transposition
references.citation: Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2006 Jan;27(1):81-4
references.pmid: 16359845
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2007 Nov;51(11):4187-90
references.pmid: 17846142
references.citation: Trends Microbiol. 2012 Jun;20(6):262-7
references.pmid: 22564249
references.citation: BMC Genomics. 2008 Sep 18;9:427
references.pmid: 18801193
references.citation: Nat Genet. 2004 Jul;36(7):760-6
references.pmid: 15208628
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002 Nov;46(11):3665-8
references.pmid: 12384388
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2002 Sep 24;215(1):33-9
references.pmid: 12393197
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2010 Mar;65(3):474-8
references.pmid: 20071364
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2004 Aug;54(2):429-34
references.pmid: 15243023
references.citation: Nat Rev Microbiol. 2004 Mar;2(3):241-9
references.pmid: 15083159
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010 Aug;54(8):3471-4
references.pmid: 20516288
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2011 Sep;35(5):912-35
references.pmid: 21729108
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2001 Feb 5;195(1):59-65
references.pmid: 11166996
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002 May;46(5):1288-94
references.pmid: 11959558
references.citation: ISME J. 2008 Apr;2(4):417-28
references.pmid: 18273063
references.citation: Curr Microbiol. 2011 Jun;62(6):1794-801
references.pmid: 21479796
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2008 Jan;278(2):223-30
references.pmid: 18096018
references.citation: Nat Rev Microbiol. 2010 Apr;8(4):260-71
references.pmid: 20208551
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009 Jun;53(6):2492-8
references.pmid: 19332679
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Apr 1;100(7):4197-202
references.pmid: 12634424
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2009 Feb;63(2):282-9
references.pmid: 19074421
references.citation: J Bacteriol. 2008 Jul;190(14):5095-100
references.pmid: 18487337
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2007 Jan;45(1):241-3
references.pmid: 17122024
references.citation: Plasmid. 1999 Sep;42(2):73-91
references.pmid: 10489325
references.citation: Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2009 Dec 08;8:34
references.pmid: 19995422
references.citation: Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1999 Nov;18(11):761-70
references.pmid: 10614949
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006 Aug;58(2):297-304
references.pmid: 16782741
references.citation: Mol Microbiol. 2008 Feb;67(3):475-81
references.pmid: 18086200
references.citation: Curr Opin Microbiol. 2003 Oct;6(5):452-6
references.pmid: 14572536
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2010 Sep;65(9):1915-8
references.pmid: 20558468
references.citation: Mol Microbiol. 2006 May;60(4):820-7
references.pmid: 16677295
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003 Jan;47(1):421-6
references.pmid: 12499230
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001 Nov;45(11):3014-20
references.pmid: 11600350
references.citation: J Bacteriol. 1992 Oct;174(19):6005-10
references.pmid: 1328149
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2000 May 1;186(1):55-9
references.pmid: 10779712
references.citation: Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2007 Mar;71(1):121-57
references.pmid: 17347521
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 1999 Jul;44(1):11-8
references.pmid: 10459805
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011 Jul;55(7):3201-6
references.pmid: 21537009
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2010 Dec;38(22):e199
references.pmid: 20880995
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001 Sep;45(9):2658-61
references.pmid: 11502548
references.citation: Genome Biol Evol. 2011;3:959-73
references.pmid: 21803768
references.citation: Microbiol Immunol. 2006;50(6):463-7
references.pmid: 16785718
references.citation: Plasmid. 1990 Nov;24(3):163-89
references.pmid: 1963947
references.citation: PLoS Pathog. 2012;8(11):e1003043
references.pmid: 23209414
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008 Aug;62(2):296-302
references.pmid: 18456652
references.citation: Res Microbiol. 2007 Dec;158(10):767-78
references.pmid: 17997281
references.citation: Future Microbiol. 2010 Oct;5(10):1525-38
references.pmid: 21073312
references.citation: J Bacteriol. 2001 Jan;183(1):235-49
references.pmid: 11114922
references.citation: Int J Food Microbiol. 2011 Oct 3;149(3):274-7
references.pmid: 21802160
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Lett. 1999 Jan 1;170(1):251-6
references.pmid: 9919675
references.citation: Cell Microbiol. 2008 Dec;10(12):2377-86
references.pmid: 18549454
references.citation: J Appl Microbiol. 2002;92(5):992-1004
references.pmid: 11972706
references.citation: Microbiology (Reading). 1995 Dec;141 ( Pt 12):3015-27
references.pmid: 8574395
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2011 Jan;77(1):335-7
references.pmid: 21037292
references.citation: Br J Pharmacol. 2008 Mar;153 Suppl 1:S347-57
references.pmid: 18193080
references.citation: Annu Rev Genet. 2010;44:141-66
references.pmid: 20707672
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1999 Jan;43(1):157-60
references.pmid: 9869582
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995 Jan;39(1):185-91
references.pmid: 7695304
references.citation: Plasmid. 2000 Jul;44(1):66-84
references.pmid: 10873528
references.citation: J Bacteriol. 1982 Aug;151(2):569-79
references.pmid: 6284702
references.citation: PLoS Genet. 2010 Jan;6(1):e1000793
references.pmid: 20066027
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011 Mar;66(3):608-10
references.pmid: 21217128
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006 Jul;58(1):1-6
references.pmid: 16751201
references.citation: Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2000 Nov 29;355(1403):1553-62
references.pmid: 11127900
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2005 Sep;56(3):544-51
references.pmid: 16040624
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2009 Jul;33(4):757-84
references.pmid: 19416365
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009 Aug;53(8):3579-81
references.pmid: 19451292
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2007 Aug;51(8):3017-9
references.pmid: 17517851
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2007 Dec;51(12):4466-70
references.pmid: 17938184
references.citation: Mol Microbiol. 1995 Feb;15(4):593-600
references.pmid: 7783631
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Jan 18;102(3):541-6
references.pmid: 15634738
references.citation: Microb Ecol. 2008 Feb;55(2):184-93
references.pmid: 17701242
references.citation: J Bacteriol. 2008 Aug;190(15):5318-27
references.pmid: 18502858
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010 Jan;54(1):320-7
references.pmid: 19901094
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2011 Sep;35(5):790-819
references.pmid: 21517914
references.citation: J Bacteriol. 1994 Jun;176(11):3257-68
references.pmid: 8195081
references.citation: Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 1999 Sep;63(3):507-22
references.pmid: 10477306
references.citation: Lancet Infect Dis. 2009 Jun;9(6):357-64
references.pmid: 19467475
references.citation: Mol Microbiol. 2002 Mar;43(6):1657-69
references.pmid: 11952913
references.citation: Trends Microbiol. 2007 Jul;15(7):301-9
references.pmid: 17566739
references.citation: ISME J. 2009 Feb;3(2):209-15
references.pmid: 18923456
references.citation: J Infect Dev Ctries. 2010 Jun 30;4(6):412-6
references.pmid: 20601796
references.citation: J Bacteriol. 2010 Apr;192(7):1865-74
references.pmid: 20118251
references.citation: Res Microbiol. 2011 Apr;162(3):337-45
references.pmid: 21262357
references.citation: J Med Microbiol. 2009 Feb;58(Pt 2):217-221
references.pmid: 19141739
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 May 4;101(18):7118-22
references.pmid: 15107498
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2009 Sep;75(18):6002-4
references.pmid: 19648375
references.citation: Plasmid. 1997;37(3):159-68
references.pmid: 9200219
references.citation: Avian Pathol. 2006 Aug;35(4):349-56
references.pmid: 16854651
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2010 Jun;65(6):1162-70
references.pmid: 20375036
references.citation: Genetics. 2002 Feb;160(2):765-77
references.pmid: 11861577
references.citation: Biol Lett. 2005 Jun 22;1(2):250-2
references.pmid: 17148179
references.citation: Plasmid. 2008 Nov;60(3):167-73
references.pmid: 18778731
references.citation: Nat Rev Microbiol. 2005 Sep;3(9):722-32
references.pmid: 16138100
references.citation: Front Microbiol. 2012 Feb 20;3:27
references.pmid: 22363321
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004 Jan;48(1):364-5
references.pmid: 14693570
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009 Jun;53(6):2667-71
references.pmid: 19364869
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005 Aug;49(8):3541-3
references.pmid: 16048979
references.citation: Vet Microbiol. 2007 Oct 6;124(3-4):248-55
references.pmid: 17521833
references.citation: Science. 2009 Sep 11;325(5946):1391-4
references.pmid: 19745152
references.citation: Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2006 Jun;70(2):296-316
references.pmid: 16760305
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2007 Feb;59(2):184-90
references.pmid: 17114173
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2009 Mar;15(3):388-96
references.pmid: 19239750
references.citation: PLoS Genet. 2012 Jun;8(6):e1002803
references.pmid: 22761596
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2005 May;55(5):639-44
references.pmid: 15761064
references.citation: Trends Microbiol. 1996 Feb;4(2):69-72
references.pmid: 8820570
references.citation: Mol Microbiol. 1992 Oct;6(19):2875-85
references.pmid: 1331702
references.citation: J Bacteriol. 1982 Jul;151(1):222-28
references.pmid: 6282806
references.citation: J Bacteriol. 1977 Mar;129(3):1632-5
references.pmid: 321437
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1999 Mar;43(3):693-6
references.pmid: 10049292
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2007 Apr;51(4):1164-71
references.pmid: 17220406
references.citation: PLoS One. 2010 Dec 20;5(12):e15302
references.pmid: 21187963
references.citation: J Bacteriol. 1993 Mar;175(6):1796-805
references.pmid: 8383666
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008 Aug;62(2):289-95
references.pmid: 18487232
references.citation: Mol Microbiol. 1989 Dec;3(12):1669-83
references.pmid: 2560119
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2007 Dec;60(6):1243-50
references.pmid: 17913715
references.citation: J Bacteriol. 1996 Aug;178(15):4429-37
references.pmid: 8755869
references.citation: Annu Rev Genet. 1991;25:147-71
references.pmid: 1812805
references.citation: Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2006 Jan;27(1):27-31
references.pmid: 16359846
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009 Dec;53(12):5294-6
references.pmid: 19752283
references.citation: Science. 2009 May 22;324(5930):1034
references.pmid: 19460999
references.citation: PLoS Pathog. 2012;8(8):e1002837
references.pmid: 22876180
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2005 Dec;71(12):7941-7
references.pmid: 16332771
references.citation: Environ Biosafety Res. 2005 Oct-Dec;4(4):223-33
references.pmid: 16827550
references.citation: Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 1998 Sep;62(3):725-74
references.pmid: 9729608
references.citation: Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2010 Jun;67(2):188-90
references.pmid: 20338709
references.citation: PLoS Genet. 2006 Jan;2(1):e7
references.pmid: 16415984
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995 Jan;39(1):155-62
references.pmid: 7695299
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2011 Sep;35(5):707-35
references.pmid: 21223321
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2012 Sep 1;40(17):8361-70
references.pmid: 22740653
references.citation: Mol Microbiol. 2010 Nov;78(3):537-40
references.pmid: 21038479
references.citation: Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2007 Aug;30(2):118-28
references.pmid: 17566713
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2007 Dec;60(6):1227-34
references.pmid: 17827139
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011 Nov;66(11):2667-8
references.pmid: 21810834
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Lett. 1998 Dec 15;169(2):391-5
references.pmid: 9868786
references.citation: Nat Rev Microbiol. 2005 Sep;3(9):711-21
references.pmid: 16138099
references.citation: Mol Biol Rep. 2011 Nov;38(8):5261-79
references.pmid: 21258866
references.citation: Microbiology (Reading). 2011 Dec;157(Pt 12):3349-3360
references.pmid: 21948046
references.citation: Bioinformatics. 2009 Apr 15;25(8):1096-8
references.pmid: 19228805
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008 Aug;52(8):2734-41
references.pmid: 18519732
references.citation: Drug Resist Updat. 2000 Aug;3(4):237-245
references.pmid: 11498391
references.citation: Curr Microbiol. 2009 Aug;59(2):113-7
references.pmid: 19365688
references.citation: Mol Microbiol. 2005 Jan;55(1):312-25
references.pmid: 15612937
references.citation: J Bacteriol. 2006 Aug;188(16):5722-30
references.pmid: 16885440
references.citation: Nature. 2000 May 18;405(6784):299-304
references.pmid: 10830951
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001 Nov;45(11):2991-3000
references.pmid: 11600347
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 Jun 20;97(13):6981-5
references.pmid: 10860960
references.citation: PLoS Genet. 2010 Oct 21;6(10):e1001165
references.pmid: 20975940
references.citation: Trends Microbiol. 2009 Feb;17(2):47-53
references.pmid: 19162481
references.citation: J Med Microbiol. 2010 Jan;59(Pt 1):132-134
references.pmid: 19729458
references.citation: Curr Microbiol. 2012 Mar;64(3):211-3
references.pmid: 22119898