title: Subtle differences in virus composition affect disinfection kinetics and mechanisms.
abstract: Viral disinfection kinetics have been studied in depth, but the molecular-level inactivation mechanisms are not understood. Consequently, it is difficult to predict the disinfection behavior of nonculturable viruses, even when related, culturable viruses are available. The objective of this work was to determine how small differences in the composition of the viral genome and proteins impact disinfection. To this end, we investigated the inactivation of three related bacteriophages (MS2, fr, and GA) by UV254, singlet oxygen ((1)O2), free chlorine (FC), and chlorine dioxide (ClO2). Genome damage was quantified by PCR, and protein damage was assessed by quantitative matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry. ClO2 caused great variability in the inactivation kinetics between viruses and was the only treatment that did not induce genome damage. The inactivation kinetics were similar for all viruses when treated with disinfectants possessing a genome-damaging component (FC, (1)O2, and UV254). On the protein level, UV254 subtly damaged MS2 and fr capsid proteins, whereas GA's capsid remained intact. (1)O2 oxidized a methionine residue in MS2 but did not affect the other two viruses. In contrast, FC and ClO2 rapidly degraded the capsid proteins of all three viruses. Protein composition alone could not explain the observed degradation trends; instead, molecular dynamics simulations indicated that degradation is dictated by the solvent-accessible surface area of individual amino acids. Finally, despite the similarities of the three viruses investigated, their mode of inactivation by a single disinfectant varied. This explains why closely related viruses can exhibit drastically different inactivation kinetics.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Thérèse
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Sigstam
authors.forename: Greg
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Gannon
authors.forename: Michele
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Cascella
authors.forename: Brian M
authors.initials: BM
authors.lastname: Pecson
authors.forename: Krista Rule
authors.initials: KR
authors.lastname: Wigginton
authors.forename: Tamar
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Kohn
mesh_terms: D002713:Chlorine / Q000494:pharmacology; D017606:Chlorine Compounds / Q000494:pharmacology; D004203:Disinfection / Q000379:methods*; D016679:Genome, Viral / Q000187:drug effects / Q000528:radiation effects; D007700:Kinetics; D017909:Levivirus / Q000187:drug effects / Q000235:genetics / Q000254:growth & development* / Q000528:radiation effects; D056004:Molecular Dynamics Simulation; D010087:Oxides / Q000494:pharmacology; D026082:Singlet Oxygen / Q000494:pharmacology; D019032:Spectrometry, Mass, Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption-Ionization; D014466:Ultraviolet Rays; D038301:Virus Inactivation / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000528:radiation effects*
chemical_list: D017606:Chlorine Compounds; D010087:Oxides; D026082:Singlet Oxygen; D002713:Chlorine; C025109:chlorine dioxide
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