title: Validity of the 3D VECTRA photogrammetric surface imaging system for cranio-maxillofacial anthropometric measurements.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The use of three-dimensional (3D) photography for anthropometric measurements is of increasing interest, especially in the cranio-maxillofacial field. Before standard implementation, accurate determination of the precision and accuracy of each system is mandatory.
  
  
  METHODS
  A mannequin head was labelled with 52 landmarks, and 28 three-dimensional images were taken using a commercially available five-pod 3D photosystem (3D VECTRA; Canfield, Fairfield, NJ) in different head positions. Distances between the landmarks were measured manually using a conventional calliper and compared with the digitally calculated distances acquired from labelling by two independent observers. The experimental set-up accounted for clinical circumstances by varying the positioning (vertical, horizontal, sagittal) of the phantom.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In the entire calliper measurement data set (n = 410), a significant difference (p = 0.02) between the directly measured and corresponding virtually calculated distances was found. The mean aberration between both modalities covering all data was 7.96 mm. No differences (p = 0.94) between the two groups were found using a cut-off of 10 % (leaving n = 369 distances) due to considerable errors in direct measurements and the necessary manual data translation. The mean diversity of both measurement modalities after cut-off was 1.33 mm (maximum, 6.70 mm). Inter-observer analysis of all 1,326 distances showed no difference (p = 0.99; maximal difference, 0.58 mm) in the digital measurements.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The precision and accuracy of this five-pod 3D photosystem suggests its suitability for clinical applications, particularly anthropometric studies. Three-hundred-and-sixty degree surface-contour mapping of the craniofacial region within milliseconds is particularly useful in paediatric patients. Proper patient positioning is essential for high-quality imaging.
authors.affiliation: Department of Cranio-Maxillofacial and Oral Surgery, University of Zurich, Frauenklinikstrasse 24, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland, Philipp.Metzler@usz.ch.
authors.forename: Philipp
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Metzler
authors.forename: Yi
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Sun
authors.forename: Wolfgang
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Zemann
authors.forename: Alexander
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Bartella
authors.forename: Marc
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Lehner
authors.forename: Joachim Anton
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Obwegeser
authors.forename: Astrid L
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Kruse-Gujer
authors.forename: Heinz-Theo
authors.initials: HT
authors.lastname: Lübbers
mesh_terms: D059925:Anatomic Landmarks / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D002508:Cephalometry / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005147:Facial Bones / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D006801:Humans; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D008348:Manikins; D015588:Observer Variation; D010780:Photogrammetry / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012886:Skull / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D014584:User-Computer Interface
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