title: Determinants and within-person variability of urinary cadmium concentrations among women in northern California.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic metal associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Urinary Cd (U-Cd) concentration is considered a biomarker of long-term exposure.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  Our objectives were to evaluate the within-person correlation among repeat samples and to identify predictors of U-Cd concentrations.
  
  
  METHODS
  U-Cd concentrations (micrograms per liter) were measured in 24-hr urine samples collected from 296 women enrolled in the California Teachers Study in 2000 and a second 24-hr sample collected 3-9 months later from 141 of the participants. Lifestyle and sociodemographic characteristics were obtained via questionnaires. The Total Diet Study database was used to quantify dietary cadmium intake based on a food frequency questionnaire. We estimated environmental cadmium emissions near participants' residences using a geographic information system.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The geometric mean U-Cd concentration was 0.27 µg/L and the range was 0.1-3.6 µg/L. The intraclass correlation among repeat samples from an individual was 0.50. The use of a single 24-hr urine specimen to characterize Cd exposure in a case-control study would result in an observed odds ratio of 1.4 for a true odds ratio of 2.0. U-Cd concentration increased with creatinine, age, and lifetime pack-years of smoking among ever smokers or lifetime intensity-years of passive smoking among nonsmokers, whereas it decreased with greater alcohol consumption and number of previous pregnancies. These factors explained 42-44% of the variability in U-Cd concentrations.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  U-Cd levels varied with several individual characteristics, and a single measurement of U-Cd in a 24-hr sample did not accurately reflect medium- to long-term body burden.
authors.affiliation: Cancer Prevention Institute of California, Berkeley, California, USA.
authors.forename: Robert B
authors.initials: RB
authors.lastname: Gunier
authors.forename: Pamela L
authors.initials: PL
authors.lastname: Horn-Ross
authors.forename: Alison J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Canchola
authors.forename: Christine N
authors.initials: CN
authors.lastname: Duffy
authors.forename: Peggy
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Reynolds
authors.forename: Andrew
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hertz
authors.forename: Erika
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Garcia
authors.forename: Rudolph P
authors.initials: RP
authors.lastname: Rull
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D001822:Body Burden; D002104:Cadmium / Q000652:urine*; D002140:California; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008875:Middle Aged; D012907:Smoking / Q000652:urine
chemical_list: D002104:Cadmium
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