title: Effects of dam-induced landscape fragmentation on amazonian ant-plant mutualistic networks.
abstract: Mutualistic networks are critical to biological diversity maintenance; however, their structures and functionality may be threatened by a swiftly changing world. In the Amazon, the increasing number of dams poses a large threat to biological diversity because they greatly alter and fragment the surrounding landscape. Tight coevolutionary interactions typical of tropical forests, such as the ant-myrmecophyte mutualism, where the myrmecophyte plants provide domatia nesting space to their symbiotic ants, may be jeopardized by the landscape changes caused by dams. We analyzed 31 ant-myrmecophyte mutualistic networks in undisturbed and disturbed sites surrounding Balbina, the largest Central Amazonian dam. We tested how ant-myrmecophyte networks differ among dam-induced islands, lake edges, and undisturbed forests in terms of species richness, composition, structure, and robustness (number of species remaining in the network after partner extinctions). We also tested how landscape configuration in terms of area, isolation, shape, and neighborhood alters the structure of the ant-myrmecophyte networks on islands. Ant-myrmecophytic networks were highly compartmentalized in undisturbed forests, and the compartments had few strongly connected mutualistic partners. In contrast, networks at lake edges and on islands were not compartmentalized and were negatively affected by island area and isolation in terms of species richness, density, and composition. Habitat loss and fragmentation led to coextinction cascades that contributed to the elimination of entire ant-plant compartments. Furthermore, many myrmecophytic plants in disturbed sites lost their mutualistic ant partners or were colonized by opportunistic, nonspecialized ants. Robustness of ant-myrmecophyte networks on islands was lower than robustness near lake edges and in undisturbed forest and was particularly susceptible to the extinction of plants. Beyond the immediate habitat loss caused by the building of large dams in Amazonia, persistent edge effects and habitat fragmentation associated with dams had large negative effects on animal-plant mutualistic networks.
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Manaus, AM 69011-970, Brazil. c.emer@bristol.ac.uk
authors.forename: Carine
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Emer
authors.forename: Eduardo Martins
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: Venticinque
authors.forename: Carlos Roberto
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Fonseca
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001000:Ants / Q000502:physiology*; D001938:Brazil; D003247:Conservation of Natural Resources / Q000639:trends; D003710:Demography; D017753:Ecosystem; D016014:Linear Models; D010944:Plants; D045483:Rivers; D013045:Species Specificity; D013559:Symbiosis / Q000502:physiology*; D014197:Trees
keywords: anidamiento; cambio de hábitat; coextinción; coextinction; compartimentación; compartmentalization; edge effect; efecto de borde; habitat change; habitat loss; interacción de especies; mirmecofita; myrmecophyte; nestedness; pérdida de hábitat; species interaction