title: Independent and combined effects of eating rate and energy density on energy intake, appetite, and gut hormones.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Energy density (ED) and eating rate (ER) influence energy intake; their combined effects on intake and on postprandial pancreatic and gut hormone responses are undetermined. To determine the combined effects of ED and ER manipulation on voluntary food intake, subjective appetite, and postprandial pancreatic and gut hormone responses.
  
  
  METHODS
  Twenty nonobese volunteers each consumed high (1.6 kcal g(-1) ; HED) and low (1.2 kcal g(-1) ; LED) ED breakfasts slowly (20 g min(-1) ; SR) and quickly (80 g min(-1) ; FR) ad libitum to satiation. Appetite, and pancreatic and gut hormone concentrations were measured periodically over 3 h. Ad libitum energy intake during the subsequent lunch was then measured.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Main effects of ED and ER on energy intake and a main effect of ER, but not ED, on mass of food consumed were observed, FR and HED being associated with increased intake (P < 0.05). Across all conditions, energy intake was highest during FR-HED (P ≤ 0.01). Area under the curve (AUC) of appetite ratings was not different between meals. Main effects of ED and ER on insulin, peptide-YY, and glucagon-like peptide-1 AUC (P < 0.05) were observed, FR and HED being associated with larger AUC. No effects on active or total ghrelin AUC were documented. Total energy intake over both meals was highest during the FR-HED trial with the greatest difference between FR-HED and SR-LED trials (P ≤ 0.01).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Consuming an energy dense meal quickly compounds independent effects of ER and ED on energy intake. Energy compensation at the following meal may not occur despite altered gut hormone responses.
authors.affiliation: Military Nutrition Division, US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachusetts, USA. james.p.karl@us.army.mil
authors.forename: J Philip
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Karl
authors.forename: Andrew J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Young
authors.forename: Jennifer C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Rood
authors.forename: Scott J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Montain
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D001066:Appetite / Q000502:physiology*; D019540:Area Under Curve; D001786:Blood Glucose / Q000032:analysis; D015992:Body Mass Index; D062408:Breakfast; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates; D004041:Dietary Fats / Q000008:administration & dosage; D004043:Dietary Fiber / Q000008:administration & dosage; D004044:Dietary Proteins / Q000008:administration & dosage; D004435:Eating / Q000502:physiology*; D002149:Energy Intake / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D005768:Gastrointestinal Hormones / Q000378:metabolism*; D054439:Ghrelin; D052216:Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 / Q000097:blood; D006801:Humans; D007328:Insulin / Q000097:blood; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009043:Motor Activity; D010187:Pancreatic Hormones / Q000378:metabolism; D019894:Peptide YY / Q000097:blood; D019518:Postprandial Period / Q000502:physiology; D012527:Satiation; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D001786:Blood Glucose; D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates; D004041:Dietary Fats; D004043:Dietary Fiber; D004044:Dietary Proteins; D005768:Gastrointestinal Hormones; D054439:Ghrelin; D007328:Insulin; D010187:Pancreatic Hormones; D019894:Peptide YY; D052216:Glucagon-Like Peptide 1