title: Chronic kidney disease in Nicaragua: a qualitative analysis of semi-structured interviews with physicians and pharmacists.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Northwestern Nicaragua has a high prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) of unknown cause among young adult men. In addition, frequent occurrence of urinary tract infections (UTI) among men and a dysuria syndrome described by sugarcane workers as "chistata" are both reported. This study examines health professionals´ perceptions regarding etiology of these conditions and their treatment approaches, including use of potentially nephrotoxic medications.
  
  
  METHODS
  Nineteen in-person semi-structured interviews were conducted in November 2010 among ten physicians and nine pharmacists practicing in the region.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Health professionals perceived CKD as a serious and increasing problem in the region, primarily affecting young men working as manual laborers. All interviewees regarded occupational and environmental exposure to sun and heat, and dehydration as critical factors associated with the occurrence of CKD. These factors were also considered to play a role in the occurrence of chistata in the region. Health professionals indicated that reluctance among workers to hydrate might be influenced by perceptions of water contamination. Symptoms often were treated with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), diuretics and antibiotics. Physicians acknowledged that the diagnosis of UTI usually was not based on microbial culture and opined that the use of potentially nephrotoxic medications may be contributing to CKD.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Interviews provided evidence suggesting that medications such as diuretics, antibiotics and NSAIDs are widely used and sold over the counter for symptoms that may be related to dehydration and volume depletion. These factors, alone or in combination, may be possible contributors to kidney damage. Acute kidney damage coupled with volume depletion and exposures including medications and infectious agents should be further evaluated as causal factors for CKD in this region.
authors.affiliation: Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.
authors.forename: Oriana
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Ramirez-Rubio
authors.forename: Daniel R
authors.initials: DR
authors.lastname: Brooks
authors.forename: Juan Jose
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Amador
authors.forename: James S
authors.initials: JS
authors.lastname: Kaufman
authors.forename: Daniel E
authors.initials: DE
authors.lastname: Weiner
authors.forename: Madeleine Kangsen
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Scammell
mesh_terms: D001291:Attitude of Health Personnel; D053159:Dysuria / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy; D058872:Epidemics; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009527:Nicaragua / Q000453:epidemiology; D010595:Pharmacists / Q000523:psychology*; D010820:Physicians / Q000523:psychology*; D036301:Qualitative Research; D051436:Renal Insufficiency, Chronic / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology* / Q000628:therapy*; D014552:Urinary Tract Infections / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy; D055815:Young Adult