title: Developmental plasticity, genetic assimilation, and the evolutionary diversification of sexual expression in Solanum.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  For over a century, it has been hypothesized that selection can convert an environmentally induced phenotype (i.e., plasticity) into a fixed (constitutively produced) phenotype, a process known as genetic assimilation. While evidence of assimilation is accumulating, the role of plasticity generally and assimilation specifically in evolutionary diversification has rarely been examined from a comparative phylogenetic perspective. •
  
  
  METHODS
  We combined experimental analyses of plasticity with ancestral state reconstructions to examine the evolutionary dynamics of sexual expression in two well-characterized sections (Acanthophora and Lasiocarpa) in Solanum subgenus Leptostemonum. We examined sexual expression phenotypes and the proportion of staminate flowers produced under contrasting resource conditions in 10 species and combined these data with previous studies. •
  
  
  RESULTS
  Staminate flower production was phenotypically plastic for nine of 14 species and unaffected by treatment in five species. Two of the nonplastic species bore few staminate flowers, and three constitutively produced large numbers of staminate flowers. For individuals and species producing staminate flowers, these flowers occurred in a distinctive architectural pattern that was qualitatively the same in both plastic and nonplastic species. Parsimony and Bayesian reconstructions demonstrate that plasticity is ancestral among the species studied. •
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Plasticity has been lost independently in sections Acanthophora and Lasiocarpa, and the consequence of its loss results in evolutionary diversification of sexual expression. In section Acanthophora, loss of plasticity represents a reversion to production of predominantly hermaphroditic flowers. In contrast, the fixed production of staminate flowers in Lasiocarpa has the hallmarks of evolution via genetic assimilation.
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA. pamela.diggle@colorado.edu
authors.forename: Pamela K
authors.initials: PK
authors.lastname: Diggle
authors.forename: Jill S
authors.initials: JS
authors.lastname: Miller
mesh_terms: D005075:Biological Evolution; D010802:Phylogeny; D018521:Plant Physiological Phenomena / Q000235:genetics*; D012098:Reproduction / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology; D032322:Solanum / Q000235:genetics* / Q000502:physiology*
keywords: Solanaceae; Solanum; andromonoecy; assimilation; phenotypic plasticity; sexual expression