title: Microstructured bicontinuous phase formulations: their characterization and application in dermal and transdermal drug delivery.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The development of approaches to increase drug solubility and partitioning into the skin is an active area of research in topical and transdermal delivery. In addition to forming spherical aggregates, e.g., conventional oil in water or water in oil microemulsions, the combination of an oil, surfactant and water can create bicontinuous structures where the self-assembly properties of surfactants mean that the boundaries between oil and water are no longer random. This leads to the formation of specific microstructures whose intrinsic properties and interactions with the drug will determine the ability to formulate a given drug, its stability once formulated and its subsequent delivery.
  
  
  METHODS
  The review explores the relationship between the microstructure of biphasic formulations, present in microemulsions and liquid crystalline phases, and drug delivery into the skin. An overview of possible internal microstructures is followed by a summary of the methods used for structure characterization. The final section presents the work to-date and discusses the efficacy of such vehicles in enhancing dermal and transdermal delivery.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The combination of water, surface agent and oil generates a broad range of three dimensional structures differing in both chemical and physical proprieties. Knowledge of the microstructure is important in understanding the behavior of a formulation and its effect on drug delivery into the skin. Microstructure complexity, interactions between the drug and the vehicle (i.e., location and mobility) and those between the vehicle and the skin are key determinants of drug delivery.
authors.affiliation: University of Geneva and University of Lausanne, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 30 Quai Ernest Ansermet, Geneva, 1211, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Maria
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Lapteva
authors.forename: Yogeshvar N
authors.initials: YN
authors.lastname: Kalia
mesh_terms: D000279:Administration, Cutaneous; D002626:Chemistry, Pharmaceutical; D016503:Drug Delivery Systems; D004655:Emulsions / Q000737:chemistry; D005079:Excipients / Q000378:metabolism / Q000494:pharmacology; D006801:Humans; D009821:Oils / Q000378:metabolism / Q000494:pharmacology; D044367:Phase Transition; D012867:Skin / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000378:metabolism; D012869:Skin Absorption; D012995:Solubility; D013501:Surface-Active Agents / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism / Q000494:pharmacology; D014867:Water / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism / Q000494:pharmacology
chemical_list: D004655:Emulsions; D005079:Excipients; D009821:Oils; D013501:Surface-Active Agents; D014867:Water