title: Guided pedicle screw insertion: techniques and training.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In spinal fusion surgery, the accuracy with which screws are inserted in the pedicle has a direct effect on the surgical outcome. Accurate placement generally involves considerable judgmental skills that have been developed through a lengthy training process. Because the impact of misaligning one or more pedicle screws can directly affect patient safety, a number of navigational and trajectory verification approaches have been described and evaluated in the literature to provide some degree of guidance to the surgeon.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To provide a concise review to justify the need and explore the current state of developing navigational or trajectory verification techniques for ensuring proper pedicle screw insertion along with simulation methods for better educating the surgical trainees.
  
  
  METHODS
  Recent literature review.
  
  
  METHODS
  To justify the need to develop new methods for optimizing pedicle screw paths, we first reviewed some of the recent publications relating to the statistical outcomes for different types of navigation along with the conventional freehand (unassisted) screw insertion. Second, because of the importance of providing improved training in the skill of accurate screw insertion, the training aspects of relevant techniques are considered. The third part is devoted to the description of specific navigational assist methods or trajectory verification techniques and these include computer-assisted navigation, three-dimensional simulations, and also electric impedance and optical and ultrasonic image-guided methods.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This article presents an overview of the need and the current status of the guidance methods available for improving the surgical outcomes in spinal fusion procedures. It also describes educational aids that have the potential for reducing the training process.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3G9.
authors.forename: Amir
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Manbachi
authors.affiliation: Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3G9. Electronic address: cobbold@ecf.utoronto.ca.
authors.forename: Richard S C
authors.initials: RS
authors.lastname: Cobbold
authors.affiliation: Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3G9; Division of Neurosurgery, St Michael's Hospital, 30 Bond Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5B 1W8.
authors.forename: Howard J
authors.initials: HJ
authors.lastname: Ginsberg
mesh_terms: D001863:Bone Screws; D006801:Humans; D007396:Internship and Residency; D013123:Spinal Fusion / Q000193:education* / Q000379:methods*; D025321:Surgery, Computer-Assisted
keywords: Image-guided surgery; Pedicle screw insertion; Resident training; Spinal fusion surgery; Surgical navigation