title: Is ADHD a risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)? Results from a large longitudinal study of referred children with and without ADHD.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Preclinical studies link prenatal nicotine exposure with the development of both ADHD-like phenotype in rodents and blockade of extinction learning in a fear conditioning paradigm, a preclinical model of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). While these findings suggest that either ADHD, prenatal nicotine exposure, or both could be a risk factor for PTSD, such associations have not been investigated in humans.
  
  
  METHODS
  Subjects were ascertained from family-genetic, longitudinal studies of paediatrically and psychiatrically referred children with and without ADHD of both sexes and their siblings followed for 10 years from childhood into adulthood (n = 403 probands; n = 464 siblings; mean age at follow-up of probands and siblings = 22.0 years). All subjects were comprehensively evaluated with structured diagnostic interviews that included questions regarding prenatal use of cigarettes.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A total of 12% (104/867) of the sample had been exposed to maternal smoking during pregnancy. There was no interaction effect between maternal smoking during pregnancy and ADHD (z = 0.01, P = 0.99). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and ADHD were independent, significant risk factors for PTSD at the 10-year follow-up (odds ratio = 3.58 [1.35,9.48], z = 2.57, P = 0.01 and odds ratio = 2.23 [1.06,4.69], z = 2.11, P = 0.04, respectively).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results suggest that both maternal smoking during pregnancy and ADHD are significant predictors of PTSD in humans.
authors.affiliation: Clinical and Research Programs in Pediatric Psychopharmacology and Adult ADHD, Massachusetts General Hospital , Boston, MA , USA.
authors.forename: Joseph
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Biederman
authors.forename: Carter
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Petty
authors.forename: Thomas J
authors.initials: TJ
authors.lastname: Spencer
authors.forename: K Yvonne
authors.initials: KY
authors.lastname: Woodworth
authors.forename: Pradeep
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Bhide
authors.forename: Jinmin
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Zhu
authors.forename: Stephen V
authors.initials: SV
authors.lastname: Faraone
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000150:complications*; D002648:Child; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006801:Humans; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D009538:Nicotine / Q000009:adverse effects; D011247:Pregnancy; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects; D012017:Referral and Consultation; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects*; D013313:Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic / Q000209:etiology*; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D009538:Nicotine