title: Estimation of usual intake and food sources of choline and betaine in New Zealand reproductive age women.
abstract: Recently, choline has been associated with neurodevelopment, cognitive function and neural tube defect incidence. However, data on usual intakes are limited, and estimates of dietary intakes of choline and its metabolite betaine, are not available for New Zealanders. The objective of the present study was to determine usual intake and food sources of choline and betaine in a group of New Zealand reproductive age women. Dietary intake data were collected from a sample of 125 women, aged 18-40 years, by means of a 3-day weighed food record, and usual choline and betaine intake distributions were determined. The mean (SD) daily intakes of choline and betaine were 316 (66) mg and 178 (66) mg, respectively. The total choline intake relative to energy intake and body weight was 0.18 mg/kcal and 5.1 mg/kg, respectively. Only 16% of participants met or exceeded the Adequate Intake (AI) for adult women of 425 mg of choline. The top five major food contributors of choline were eggs, red meat, milk, bread and chicken; and of betaine were bread, breakfast cereal, pasta, grains and root vegetables (carrots, parsnips, beetroot, swedes). Our findings contribute towards the recent emergence of published reports on the range of dietary choline and betaine intakes consumed by free-living populations. In our sample of New Zealand women, few participants were meeting or exceeding the AI level. Given recent epidemiological evidence suggesting health benefits of increased choline and betaine intakes, recommendations should be made to encourage the consumption of choline and betaine-rich foods.
authors: Department of Human Nutrition, University of Otago, New Zealand. lisa.houghton@otago.ac.nz
authors: Vanessa L
authors: VL
authors: Mygind
authors: Sophie E
authors: SE
authors: Evans
authors: Meredith C
authors: MC
authors: Peddie
authors: Jody C
authors: JC
authors: Miller
authors: Lisa A
authors: LA
authors: Houghton
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001622:Betaine / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D001835:Body Weight / Q000502:physiology; D002794:Choline / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D004032:Diet / Q000379:methods* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D015930:Diet Records; D002149:Energy Intake / Q000502:physiology; D005247:Feeding Behavior / Q000502:physiology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D009520:New Zealand; D018673:Nutrition Policy; D012098:Reproduction; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D001622:Betaine; D002794:Choline