title: Mycobacterium bovis (bovine tuberculosis) infection in North American wildlife: current status and opportunities for mitigation of risks of further infection in wildlife populations.
abstract: Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis), the causative agent of bovine tuberculosis, has been identified in nine geographically distinct wildlife populations in North America and Hawaii and is endemic in at least three populations, including members of the Bovidae, Cervidae, and Suidae families. The emergence of M. bovis in North American wildlife poses a serious and growing risk for livestock and human health and for the recreational hunting industry. Experience in many countries, including the USA and Canada, has shown that while M. bovis can be controlled when restricted to livestock species, it is almost impossible to eradicate once it has spread into ecosystems with free-ranging maintenance hosts. Therefore, preventing transmission of M. bovis to wildlife may be the most effective way to mitigate economic and health costs of this bacterial pathogen. Here we review the status of M. bovis infection in wildlife of North America and identify risks for its establishment in uninfected North American wildlife populations where eradication or control would be difficult and costly. We identified four common risk factors associated with establishment of M. bovis in uninfected wildlife populations in North America, (1) commingling of infected cattle with susceptible wildlife, (2) supplemental feeding of wildlife, (3) inadequate surveillance of at-risk wildlife, and (4) unrecognized emergence of alternate wildlife species as successful maintenance hosts. We then propose the use of integrated and adaptive disease management to mitigate these risk factors to prevent establishment of M. bovis in susceptible North American wildlife species.
authors: USDA, APHIS, Veterinary Services, Center for Epidemiology and Animal Health, Fort Collins, CO, USA. Ryan.S.Miller@aphis.usda.gov
authors: R S
authors: RS
authors: Miller
authors: S J
authors: SJ
authors: Sweeney
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000835:Animals, Wild; D016164:Bison; D002417:Cattle; D003670:Deer; D004197:Disease Reservoirs / Q000662:veterinary; D009163:Mycobacterium bovis; D009656:North America / Q000453:epidemiology; D011159:Population Surveillance; D012307:Risk Factors; D034421:Sus scrofa; D014376:Tuberculosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000635:transmission / Q000662:veterinary*; D014380:Tuberculosis, Bovine / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000635:transmission
references: Can Vet J. 1986 Mar;27(3):119-24
references: 17422637
references: J Wildl Dis. 2009 Oct;45(4):1048-61
references: 19901381
references: J Wildl Dis. 1995 Jul;31(3):432-5
references: 8592372
references: Prev Vet Med. 2002 May 30;54(1):47-63
references: 12062519
references: Vet Microbiol. 2006 Feb 25;112(2-4):325-38
references: 16343817
references: J Wildl Dis. 2010 Jan;46(1):152-64
references: 20090028
references: Avian Dis. 2006 Mar;50(1):131-4
references: 16617997
references: J Appl Ecol. 2009 Apr;46(2):457-466
references: 19536340
references: Am J Vet Res. 2004 Nov;65(11):1483-9
references: 15566085
references: J Wildl Dis. 2003 Apr;39(2):418-23
references: 12910771
references: Avian Dis. 2001 Jul-Sep;45(3):709-18
references: 11569749
references: J Clin Microbiol. 2004 Jun;42(6):2602-8
references: 15184440
references: Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun;130(3):561-8
references: 12825742
references: J Wildl Dis. 1997 Oct;33(4):749-58
references: 9391958
references: J Wildl Dis. 1995 Oct;31(4):579-98
references: 8592398
references: Vet Microbiol. 2006 Feb 25;112(2-4):313-23
references: 16376030
references: J Wildl Dis. 1998 Jul;34(3):632-6
references: 9706576
references: Vet Microbiol. 2006 Feb 25;112(2-4):303-12
references: 16326039
references: Vet Rec. 2011 Feb 12;168(6):158
references: 21493510
references: Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2007;315:195-215
references: 17848066
references: Onderstepoort J Vet Res. 2001 Jun;68(2):119-30
references: 11585089
references: Rev Sci Tech. 2002 Apr;21(1):67-76
references: 11974631
references: J R Soc Med. 2003 Mar;96(3):118-21
references: 12612111
references: J Wildl Dis. 2009 Jan;45(1):128-43
references: 19204342
references: Vet Rec. 2001 May 5;148(18):558-63
references: 11370880
references: Can Vet J. 1962 Nov;3(11):356-8
references: 17421547
references: Emerg Infect Dis. 2008 Dec;14(12):1862-9
references: 19046508
references: Aust Vet J. 1995 Dec;72(12):448-51
references: 8825308
references: J Wildl Dis. 2009 Apr;45(2):398-410
references: 19395749
references: Vet Rec. 2010 Apr 17;166(16):487-90
references: 20400739
references: Tuber Lung Dis. 1995 Aug;76 Suppl 1:1-46
references: 7579326
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1961 Mar 15;138:326-8
references: 13699169
references: N Z Vet J. 1995 Dec;43(7):256-65
references: 16031864
references: J Wildl Dis. 2003 Jan;39(1):84-95
references: 12685071
references: Emerg Infect Dis. 2012 Aug;18(8):1372-4
references: 22840284
references: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1974 Dec 1;165(11):998-9
references: 4613727
references: Vet Rec. 2002 Aug 3;151(5):149-50
references: 12199435
references: Prev Vet Med. 2013 Jun 1;110(2):119-32
references: 23254245
references: Vet Microbiol. 2007 Feb 25;120(1-2):113-21
references: 17118585
references: Vaccine. 2010 Oct 1;28 Suppl 5:F73-6
references: 20362627
references: Vet Microbiol. 2011 Jul 5;151(1-2):200-4
references: 21439739
references: J Wildl Dis. 2002 Apr;38(2):266-74
references: 12038124
references: Res Vet Sci. 2006 Apr;80(2):140-6
references: 16045949
references: J Wildl Dis. 2002 Apr;38(2):275-81
references: 12038125
references: Can J Vet Res. 2005 Apr;69(2):143-5
references: 15971679
references: Rev Sci Tech. 2001 Apr;20(1):86-111
references: 11288522
references: Prev Vet Med. 2006 May 17;74(2-3):239-47
references: 16297475
references: Can Vet J. 2005 Jun;46(6):502
references: 16048008
references: Conserv Biol. 2007 Aug;21(4):956-63
references: 17650246
references: J Wildl Dis. 2010 Oct;46(4):1262-8
references: 20966277
references: Vet Microbiol. 2008 Feb 5;127(1-2):1-9
references: 18023299
references: Rev Sci Tech. 2005 Dec;24(3):1039-59
references: 16642773
references: Onderstepoort J Vet Res. 1996 Mar;63(1):15-8
references: 8848298
references: J Wildl Dis. 2010 Apr;46(2):368-78
references: 20688630
references: Vet Microbiol. 2011 Jul 5;151(1-2):126-32
references: 21420801
references: Can Vet J. 1990 Mar;31(3):174-80
references: 17423532
references: J Wildl Dis. 2001 Jul;37(3):608-13
references: 11504235
references: Am J Vet Res. 2002 Nov;63(11):1507-11
references: 12428659
references: Vet Med Int. 2011;2011:413240
references: 21647335
references: Can Vet J. 2009 Nov;50(11):1169-76
references: 20119541
references: Epidemiol Infect. 1989 Aug;103(1):113-25
references: 2673822
references: Vet Microbiol. 2011 Jul 5;151(1-2):179-87
references: 21414734
references: Can Vet J. 2003 Oct;44(10):830-1
references: 14601681
references: Prev Vet Med. 2000 Jan 5;43(1):53-62
references: 10665951
references: Ecol Appl. 2007 Jun;17(4):957-64
references: 17555209
references: Vet Rec. 2007 Jan 27;160(4):105-12
references: 17259451
references: J Wildl Dis. 2001 Jan;37(1):58-64
references: 11272505