title: Gene therapy for advanced melanoma: selective targeting and therapeutic nucleic acids.
abstract: Despite recent advances, the treatment of malignant melanoma still results in the relapse of the disease, and second line treatment mostly fails due to the occurrence of resistance. A wide range of mutations are known to prevent effective treatment with chemotherapeutic drugs. Hence, approaches with biopharmaceuticals including proteins, like antibodies or cytokines, are applied. As an alternative, regimens with therapeutically active nucleic acids offer the possibility for highly selective cancer treatment whilst avoiding unwanted and toxic side effects. This paper gives a brief introduction into the mechanism of this devastating disease, discusses the shortcoming of current therapy approaches, and pinpoints anchor points which could be harnessed for therapeutic intervention with nucleic acids. We bring the delivery of nucleic acid nanopharmaceutics into perspective as a novel antimelanoma therapeutic approach and discuss the possibilities for melanoma specific targeting. The latest reports on preclinical and already clinical application of nucleic acids in melanoma are discussed.
authors: Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Department of Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Butenandstraße 5-13, Munich, Germany.
authors: Joana R
authors: JR
authors: Viola
authors: Diana F
authors: DF
authors: Rafael
authors: Ernst
authors: E
authors: Wagner
authors: Robert
authors: R
authors: Besch
authors: Manfred
authors: M
authors: Ogris
references: Biochem Soc Trans. 1991 Nov;19(4):380S
references: 1724433
references: Mol Ther. 2007 Mar;15(3):636-42
references: 17228316
references: J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002 Jun 19;94(12):894-903
references: 12072543
references: J Clin Oncol. 1999 Jul;17(7):2105-16
references: 10561265
references: Curr Biol. 2005 Feb 8;15(3):249-54
references: 15694309
references: J Cell Biol. 2006 Jan 2;172(1):9-18
references: 16390995
references: Cancer Cell. 2009 Aug 4;16(2):103-14
references: 19647221
references: J Cell Biochem. 2005 Jan 1;94(1):25-38
references: 15523674
references: J Invest Dermatol. 2010 Dec;130(12):2790-8
references: 20686495
references: Mol Endocrinol. 2010 Mar;24(3):475-84
references: 19855089
references: N Engl J Med. 2012 Feb 23;366(8):707-14
references: 22356324
references: Nat Immunol. 2002 Nov;3(11):999-1005
references: 12407407
references: J Med Chem. 2012 Jun 14;55(11):5024-33
references: 22621422
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993 Apr 15;90(8):3539-43
references: 8097319
references: Nature. 1993 Dec 16;366(6456):704-7
references: 8259215
references: Nature. 2006 Nov 30;444(7119):638-42
references: 17136094
references: N Engl J Med. 2010 Aug 26;363(9):809-19
references: 20818844
references: Cancer Res. 1986 Oct;46(10):5276-81
references: 3019523
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1980 Oct;77(10):5754-8
references: 6777774
references: N Engl J Med. 2012 Jun 28;366(26):2455-65
references: 22658128
references: J Nucl Med. 2011 Apr;52(4):608-16
references: 21421725
references: J Mol Med (Berl). 2001;78(12):692-702
references: 11434722
references: Bioorg Med Chem. 2010 Sep 15;18(18):6695-700
references: 20728365
references: Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2010 Jul;37(7):1434-5; author reply 1436-7
references: 20503045
references: Cancer Immunol Immunother. 1996 May;42(4):231-6
references: 8665570
references: J Med Chem. 1992 May 29;35(11):2040-8
references: 1597855
references: Clin Cancer Res. 2003 Apr;9(4):1284-90
references: 12684396
references: N Engl J Med. 2010 Aug 19;363(8):711-23
references: 20525992
references: Bioconjug Chem. 2009 Nov;20(11):2162-8
references: 19817405
references: Cancer Res. 1995 Sep 1;55(17):3752-6
references: 7641188
references: Wiley Interdiscip Rev Nanomed Nanobiotechnol. 2012 Mar-Apr;4(2):219-33
references: 22231928
references: J Invest Dermatol. 2001 Aug;117(2):294-300
references: 11511307
references: Science. 1992 Aug 28;257(5074):1248-51
references: 1325670
references: Curr Med Chem. 2012;19(1):145-51
references: 22300088
references: Cancer Gene Ther. 2006 Sep;13(9):845-55
references: 16710344
references: Dokl Akad Nauk SSSR. 1974 Jul 21;216(6):1402-5
references: 4546390
references: Thromb Haemost. 2008 Dec;100(6):1166-75
references: 19132244
references: Genes Chromosomes Cancer. 2005 Sep;44(1):10-8
references: 15880589
references: Mol Ther. 2002 Apr;5(4):463-72
references: 11945074
references: Nature. 2010 Dec 16;468(7326):973-7
references: 21107323
references: Clin Cancer Res. 2009 Feb 1;15(3):876-86
references: 19188158
references: Mol Cancer Ther. 2004 Apr;3(4):437-49
references: 15078987
references: Cancer Res. 1995 Jan 15;55(2):414-9
references: 7529137
references: J Nucl Med. 2010 Mar;51(3):418-26
references: 20150256
references: Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2009 Dec;22(6):740-9
references: 19725928
references: Arch Dermatol Res. 2001 Nov;293(10):484-90
references: 11820724
references: J Natl Cancer Inst. 1995 Mar 1;87(5):366-71
references: 7531774
references: Nat Rev Genet. 2009 Aug;10(8):578-85
references: 19609263
references: J Immunol. 1997 Feb 15;158(4):1710-8
references: 9029107
references: Nat Rev Cancer. 2011 Nov 24;11(12):849-64
references: 22113163
references: J Biol Chem. 1990 Feb 5;265(4):2168-72
references: 1688848
references: Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2008 Sep;295(3):C701-7
references: 18632734
references: Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2009 May 6;303(1-2):74-81
references: 19428994
references: Hum Pathol. 1984 Dec;15(12):1147-65
references: 6500548
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998 Jul 7;95(14):8292-7
references: 9653180
references: Cancer Immunol Immunother. 2006 Apr;55(4):433-42
references: 15965647
references: Nucl Med Biol. 2009 Apr;36(3):267-76
references: 19324272
references: Exp Cell Res. 2011 Feb 15;317(4):445-51
references: 21087605
references: Nat Genet. 2003 May;34(1):108-12
references: 12704387
references: Cancer Gene Ther. 2000 Dec;7(12):1557-65
references: 11228534
references: Cancer Res. 1998 Jan 1;58(1):109-13
references: 9426066
references: Nature. 2002 Jun 27;417(6892):949-54
references: 12068308
references: Genes Dev. 2012 Jun 1;26(11):1131-55
references: 22661227
references: J Clin Oncol. 1995 Dec;13(12):2895-9
references: 8523052
references: Hum Gene Ther. 2011 Dec;22(12):1463-73
references: 21644815
references: Melanoma Res. 2012 Apr;22(2):101-13
references: 22209751
references: J Invest Dermatol. 2007 Feb;127(2):387-93
references: 16946713
references: Cancer Res. 2002 Aug 15;62(16):4663-70
references: 12183423
references: Melanoma Res. 2002 Dec;12(6):565-75
references: 12459646
references: Pigment Cell Res. 2005 Dec;18(6):393-410
references: 16280005
references: Cancer Res. 1992 May 1;52(9):2545-8
references: 1314697
references: Cancer Res. 2006 Jan 15;66(2):999-1006
references: 16424035
references: J Invest Dermatol. 2006 Jan;126(1):154-60
references: 16417231
references: Eur J Cancer. 2005 Sep;41(14):2040-59
references: 16125929
references: J Exp Med. 2010 Mar 15;207(3):491-503
references: 20194633
references: Nature. 2010 Apr 15;464(7291):1067-70
references: 20305636
references: Nat Biotechnol. 2007 Dec;25(12):1457-67
references: 18026085
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 Aug 20;99(17):11381-6
references: 12172010
references: N Engl J Med. 2006 Jul 6;355(1):51-65
references: 16822996
references: J Control Release. 2012 Apr 10;159(1):92-103
references: 22269664
references: Virol J. 2010 Jul 29;7:175
references: 20670430
references: J Clin Invest. 2009 Aug;119(8):2399-411
references: 19620789
references: Int J Pharm. 2012 Feb 14;423(1):108-15
references: 21726617
references: Cancer Gene Ther. 2012 Dec;19(12):852-61
references: 23059870
references: PLoS One. 2009 Dec 24;4(12):e8461
references: 20041153
references: J Clin Oncol. 2012 Jan 20;30(3):316-21
references: 22067401
references: Int J Nanomedicine. 2012;7:1489-509
references: 22619508
references: Cancer Res. 2005 Dec 1;65(23):11185-92
references: 16322269
references: Cancer Res. 1994 Jun 15;54(12):3233-6
references: 7515767
references: J Med Chem. 2011 Dec 8;54(23):8078-84
references: 22011200
references: Cell. 2012 Jul 20;150(2):251-63
references: 22817889
references: Oncol Lett. 2012 Nov;4(5):941-946
references: 23162627
references: J Am Chem Soc. 2006 Dec 27;128(51):16626-33
references: 17177411
references: Cell. 2004 Jan 23;116(2):205-19
references: 14744432
references: Pharm Res. 2009 Dec;26(12):2578-87
references: 19806436
references: Arch Dermatol Res. 2012 Apr;304(3):177-84
references: 22350184
references: J Biol Chem. 2003 Nov 21;278(47):46632-42
references: 12975361
references: J Invest Dermatol. 2000 Jul;115(1):42-7
references: 10886506
references: Nature. 2011 Nov 13;480(7375):99-103
references: 22080950
references: Exp Dermatol. 2009 Sep;18(9):741-9
references: 19555431
references: J Biol Chem. 1998 Jun 26;273(26):16501-8
references: 9632718
references: Cell. 2009 Jun 12;137(6):1005-17
references: 19524505
references: Nature. 1995 Jun 8;375(6531):506-10
references: 7777061
references: FEBS Lett. 1992 Sep 14;309(3):417-20
references: 1516719
references: Bioconjug Chem. 2008 Feb;19(2):539-47
references: 18197608
references: Bioconjug Chem. 2009 Aug 19;20(8):1634-42
references: 19552406
references: Blood. 2004 Oct 1;104(7):2149-54
references: 15138161
references: Mol Ther. 2013 Feb;21(2):300-8
references: 23299796
references: Nature. 1993 Apr 22;362(6422):755-8
references: 8469286
references: Exp Dermatol. 2004 Jun;13(6):380-90
references: 15186325
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Nov 26;93(24):13791-6
references: 8943014
references: Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2011 Dec;22(6):894-900
references: 21724381
references: Nat Med. 2008 Nov;14(11):1256-63
references: 18978796
references: Cancer Biol Ther. 2002 Jan-Feb;1(1):14-7
references: 12170758
references: Jpn J Cancer Res. 1993 Nov;84(11):1136-44
references: 7506248
references: J Clin Oncol. 2009 Dec 20;27(36):6199-206
references: 19917835
references: Ann Surg. 1998 May;227(5):764-9; discussion 769-71
references: 9605668
references: Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2011 Oct;24(5):980-2; author reply 983-5
references: 21762469
references: N Engl J Med. 2012 Jan 19;366(3):207-15
references: 22256804
references: J Control Release. 2012 Dec 10;164(2):138-44
references: 22595146
references: Cell. 2002 Jun 14;109(6):707-18
references: 12086670
references: Cancer Res. 2008 Nov 1;68(21):9078-86
references: 18974154
references: Nature. 2011 Oct 19;480(7375):94-8
references: 22012259
references: Cancer Res. 2006 May 15;66(10):5427-35
references: 16707471
references: Thromb Res. 2012 May;129(5):603-10
references: 22099706
references: Ann Surg Oncol. 2012 Feb;19(2):627-35
references: 21879272
references: Clin Cancer Res. 2001 Apr;7(4):952-61
references: 11309346
references: N Engl J Med. 2012 Nov;367(18):1694-703
references: 23020132
references: Curr Treat Options Oncol. 2005 May;6(3):185-93
references: 15869730
references: J Biol Chem. 1996 Jan 5;271(1):490-5
references: 8550608
references: Oncogene. 2011 May 19;30(20):2307-18
references: 21278797
references: Genes Dev. 2010 Nov 15;24(22):2463-79
references: 21078816
references: Mol Biol Rep. 2013 Feb;40(2):1463-71
references: 23160899
references: Nat Biotechnol. 2007 Oct;25(10):1165-70
references: 17891134
references: Cancer Metastasis Rev. 2012 Dec;31(3-4):621-32
references: 22684365
references: Science. 1992 Nov 13;258(5085):1148-52
references: 1439824
references: J Med Chem. 1999 Aug 12;42(16):3033-40
references: 10447947
references: Hum Gene Ther. 1999 Feb 10;10(3):407-17
references: 10048393
references: Cancer Microenviron. 2008 Dec;1(1):103-11
references: 19308689
references: J Med Case Rep. 2010 Jul 27;4:228
references: 20663201
references: J Invest Dermatol. 2004 Feb;122(2):342-8
references: 15009715
references: Nat Genet. 2009 May;41(5):544-52
references: 19282848
references: Cancer Manag Res. 2010 Aug 17;2:197-211
references: 21188111