title: Stopover optimization in a long-distance migrant: the role of fuel load and nocturnal take-off time in Alaskan northern wheatears (Oenanthe oenanthe).
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In long-distance migrants, a considerably higher proportion of time and energy is allocated to stopovers rather than to flights. Stopover duration and departure decisions affect consequently subsequent flight stages and overall speed of migration. In Arctic nocturnal songbird migrants the trade-off between a relatively long migration distance and short nights available for travelling may impose a significant time pressure on migrants. Therefore, we hypothesize that Alaskan northern wheatears (Oenanthe oenanthe) use a time-minimizing migration strategy to reach their African wintering area 15,000 km away.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We estimated the factors influencing the birds' daily departure probability from an Arctic stopover before crossing the Bering Strait by using a Cormack-Jolly-Seber model. To identify in which direction and when migration was resumed departing birds were radio-tracked. Here we show that Alaskan northern wheatears did not behave as strict time minimizers, because their departure fuel load was unrelated to fuel deposition rate. All birds departed with more fuel load than necessary for the sea crossing. Departure probability increased with stopover duration, evening fuel load and decreasing temperature. Birds took-off towards southwest and hence, followed in general the constant magnetic and geographic course but not the alternative great circle route. Nocturnal departure times were concentrated immediately after sunset.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Although birds did not behave like time-minimizers in respect of the optimal migration strategies their surplus of fuel load clearly contradicted an energy saving strategy in terms of the minimization of overall energy cost of transport. The observed low variation in nocturnal take-off time in relation to local night length compared to similar studies in the temperate zone revealed that migrants have an innate ability to respond to changes in the external cue of night length. Likely, birds maximized their potential nightly flight range by taking off early in the night which in turn maximizes their overall migration speed. Hence, nocturnal departure time may be a crucial parameter shaping the speed of migration indicating the significance of its integration in future migration models.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Avian Research "Vogelwarte Helgoland", An der Vogelwarte 21, Wilhelmshaven 26836, Germany. heiko.schmaljohann@ifv-vogelwarte.de.
authors.forename: Heiko
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Schmaljohann
authors.forename: Fränzi
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Korner-Nievergelt
authors.forename: Beat
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Naef-Daenzer
authors.forename: Rolf
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Nagel
authors.forename: Ivan
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Maggini
authors.forename: Marc
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Bulte
authors.forename: Franz
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Bairlein