title: Calcium intake in health maintenance - a systematic review.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Calcium (Ca) is an essential nutrient for the human body. Despite lively research, there is uncertainty about Ca requirements in terms of desirable health outcomes including an upper intake level above which the potential for harm increases.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The aim was to conduct a review to update requirements and desirable or harmful health effects of Ca on the current scientific evidence.
  
  
  METHODS
  We searched Medline and Swemed from January 2000 to December 2011 and included all systematic reviews that reported Ca supplementation or usual Ca intake on health outcomes. Meta-analyses, randomized clinical trials and cohort studies were included in the second search between May 2009 and March 2011 and an additional search covering studies till the end of 2011. This review concentrated on studies reporting independent effects of Ca, although a few recent trials report sole effects of Ca on health outcomes, most trials use Ca in combination with vitamin D vs. placebo.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In total, we reviewed 38 studies addressing the effects of Ca on bone, pregnancy-related outcomes, cancers, cardiovascular outcomes, obesity, and mortality. There was a lot of heterogeneity in the study protocols, which made it difficult to draw any strong conclusions. According to the literature, high Ca intake seems to have a small positive effect on bone mineral content (BMC) or bone mineral density (BMD) in children and postmenopausal women. We did not find any consistent evidence on the effects of Ca on bone health in premenopausal women or men. Also, the evidence that Ca supplementation reduces fracture incidence is scarce and inconsistent. Maternal diet may influence the peak bone mass of offspring but more studies are required. There was no overall effect of Ca intake on cancers. Ca was associated with a decreased risk of breast cancer and a slightly increased risk of prostate cancer in two of the three studies. No associations were found with other cancers. We found no consistent association between cardiovascular outcomes and Ca intake except for blood pressure. A small decrease of 2-4 mmHg in systolic blood pressure was found in pregnant and in hypertensive subjects with Ca supplementation. Reviewed studies did not show consistent evidence relating Ca intake to either mortality or obesity.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Based on this evidence, there is no need to change the Nordic recommendations for Ca intake. However, due to heterogeneity in the studies it is difficult to interpret the results and provide single summary statement.
authors.affiliation: UKK Institute for Health Promotion Research, Tampere, Finland.
authors.forename: Kirsti
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Uusi-Rasi
authors.forename: Merja U M
authors.initials: MU
authors.lastname: Kärkkäinen
authors.forename: Christel J E
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Lamberg-Allardt
keywords: Calcium intake; bone mineral density; calcium requirements; disease prevention; health maintenance; health outcomes; osteoporosis