title: A longitudinal examination of the developmental executive function hierarchy in children with externalizing behavior problems.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Using a 4-year longitudinal design, we evaluated two hypotheses based on developmental executive function (EF) hierarchy accounts in a sample of children with externalizing problems.
  
  
  METHODS
  The participants performed EF tasks when they were between 8 and 12 years (M = 9.93), and again approximately 4 years later when they were between 12 and 15 years (M = 13.36).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Inhibition in middle childhood predicted working memory (WM) 4 years later. Further, deficits in inhibition and sustained attention were more prominent in middle rather than late childhood, whereas poor WM was salient throughout these periods.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These findings support the hypotheses that EFs develop hierarchically and that EF deficits in ADHD are more prominent in actively developing EFs. They also emphasize ADHD as a developmental disorder.
authors.affiliation: Uppsala University, Sweden Carin.Tillman@psyk.uu.se.
authors.forename: Carin
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Tillman
authors.affiliation: Uppsala University, Sweden.
authors.forename: Karin C
authors.initials: KC
authors.lastname: Brocki
authors.affiliation: University of Bergen, Norway Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway.
authors.forename: Lin
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Sørensen
authors.affiliation: University of Bergen, Norway Regional Centre for Child and Youth Mental Health and Child Welfare, Uni Research, Bergen, Norway.
authors.forename: Astri J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Lundervold
mesh_terms: D001288:Attention; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology; D002648:Child; D019955:Conduct Disorder / Q000150:complications / Q000503:physiopathology*; D002658:Developmental Disabilities; D056344:Executive Function / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007266:Inhibition, Psychological; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D008570:Memory, Short-Term / Q000502:physiology*; D001523:Mental Disorders; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests
keywords: ADHD; development; executive function; hierarchy; longitudinal