title: Prevalence of and risk factors associated with atherosclerosis in psittacine birds.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To estimate the prevalence of clinically relevant atherosclerotic lesions in birds and identify epidemiological variables and illness types associated with development of atherosclerosis.
  
  
  METHODS
  Retrospective case-control study.
  
  
  METHODS
  Records of 7683 psittacine birds, including 525 with advanced atherosclerosis.
  
  
  METHODS
  5 pathology centers provided databases and access to histopathology slides. Age and sex were collected for all birds of the Amazona, Ara, Cacatua, Nymphicus, and Psittacus genera. Databases were searched for atherosclerosis cases, and slides were reviewed for the presence of type IV through VI atherosclerotic lesions. Results were used to build several multiple logistic models to define the association between advanced atherosclerosis and age, sex, genus, illness type, and specific lesions. Prevalence was reported as a function of age, sex, and genus.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In the first model including 7683 birds, age, female sex, and the genera Psittacus, Amazona, and Nymphicus were significantly associated with clinically relevant atherosclerosis detected via necropsy. Subsequent models of 1,050 cases revealed further associations with reproductive disease, hepatic disease, and myocardial fibrosis, controlling for age, sex, and genus.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Age, female sex, and 3 genera appeared to be positively associated with the presence of advanced atherosclerotic lesions in psittacine birds. This information may be useful in clinical assessment of the cardiovascular system and patient management. Reproductive diseases were the only potentially modifiable risk factor identified and could be a target for prevention in captive psittacine birds.
authors.affiliation: Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA. h.beaufrere@gmail.com
authors.forename: Hugues
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Beaufrère
authors.forename: Mélanie
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Ammersbach
authors.forename: Drury R
authors.initials: DR
authors.lastname: Reavill
authors.forename: Michael M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Garner
authors.forename: J Jill
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Heatley
authors.forename: Nobuko
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Wakamatsu
authors.forename: Javier G
authors.initials: JG
authors.lastname: Nevarez
authors.forename: Thomas N
authors.initials: TN
authors.lastname: Tully
mesh_terms: D000375:Aging; D000818:Animals; D050197:Atherosclerosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000662:veterinary*; D001715:Bird Diseases / Q000473:pathology*; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D005260:Female; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D016017:Odds Ratio; D011563:Psittaciformes; D012307:Risk Factors; D012737:Sex Factors; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology