title: Adverse childhood experiences and adult criminality: how long must we live before we possess our own lives?
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Empirical research associated with the Kaiser Permanente and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study has demonstrated that ACE are associated with a range of negative outcomes in adulthood, including physical and mental health disorders and aggressive behavior.
  
  
  METHODS
  Subjects from 4 different offender groups (N = 151) who were referred for treatment at an outpatient clinic in San Diego, CA, subsequent to conviction in criminal court, completed the ACE Questionnaire. Groups (nonsexual child abusers, domestic violence offenders, sexual offenders, and stalkers) were compared on the incidence of ACE, and comparisons were made between the group offenders and a normative sample.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Results indicated that the offender group reported nearly four times as many adverse events in childhood than an adult male normative sample. Eight of ten events were found at significantly higher levels among the criminal population. In addition, convicted sexual offenders and child abusers were more likely to report experiencing sexual abuse in childhood than other offender types.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  On the basis of a review of the literature and current findings, criminal behavior can be added to the host of negative outcomes associated with scores on the ACE Questionnaire. Childhood adversity is associated with adult criminality. We suggest that to decrease criminal recidivism, treatment interventions must focus on the effects of early life experiences.
authors.affiliation: Intrapsychic in San Diego, CA, USA. reavis@jamesreavis.com
authors.forename: James A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Reavis
authors.forename: Jan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Looman
authors.forename: Kristina A
authors.initials: KA
authors.lastname: Franco
authors.forename: Briana
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Rojas
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D054523:Adult Survivors of Child Abuse / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D002648:Child; D002649:Child Abuse / Q000523:psychology*; D057237:Criminals / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D006801:Humans; D008016:Life Change Events; D008297:Male; D012307:Risk Factors