title: Pan-genome analysis of the emerging foodborne pathogen Cronobacter spp. suggests a species-level bidirectional divergence driven by niche adaptation.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Members of the genus Cronobacter are causes of rare but severe illness in neonates and preterm infants following the ingestion of contaminated infant formula. Seven species have been described and two of the species genomes were subsequently published. In this study, we performed comparative genomics on eight strains of Cronobacter, including six that we sequenced (representing six of the seven species) and two previously published, closed genomes.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We identified and characterized the features associated with the core and pan genome of the genus Cronobacter in an attempt to understand the evolution of these bacteria and the genetic content of each species. We identified 84 genomic regions that are present in two or more Cronobacter genomes, along with 45 unique genomic regions. Many potentially horizontally transferred genes, such as lysogenic prophages, were also identified. Most notable among these were several type six secretion system gene clusters, transposons that carried tellurium, copper and/or silver resistance genes, and a novel integrative conjugative element.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Cronobacter have diverged into two clusters, one consisting of C. dublinensis and C. muytjensii (Cdub-Cmuy) and the other comprised of C. sakazakii, C. malonaticus, C. universalis, and C. turicensis, (Csak-Cmal-Cuni-Ctur) from the most recent common ancestral species. While several genetic determinants for plant-association and human virulence could be found in the core genome of Cronobacter, the four Cdub-Cmuy clade genomes contained several accessory genomic regions important for survival in a plant-associated environmental niche, while the Csak-Cmal-Cuni-Ctur clade genomes harbored numerous virulence-related genetic traits.
authors.affiliation: CFSAN/Food & Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA. ben.tall@fda.hhs.gov
authors.forename: Christopher J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Grim
authors.forename: Michael L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Kotewicz
authors.forename: Karen A
authors.initials: KA
authors.lastname: Power
authors.forename: Gopal
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Gopinath
authors.forename: Augusto A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Franco
authors.forename: Karen G
authors.initials: KG
authors.lastname: Jarvis
authors.forename: Qiong Q
authors.initials: QQ
authors.lastname: Yan
authors.forename: Scott A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Jackson
authors.forename: Venugopal
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Sathyamoorthy
authors.forename: Lan
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Hu
authors.forename: Franco
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Pagotto
authors.forename: Carol
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Iversen
authors.forename: Angelika
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Lehner
authors.forename: Roger
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Stephan
authors.forename: Séamus
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Fanning
authors.forename: Ben D
authors.initials: BD
authors.lastname: Tall
mesh_terms: D000222:Adaptation, Physiological / Q000235:genetics*; D059126:Cronobacter / Q000235:genetics* / Q000502:physiology*; D019143:Evolution, Molecular; D005516:Food Microbiology; D016680:Genome, Bacterial / Q000235:genetics; D023281:Genomics; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D010802:Phylogeny; D013045:Species Specificity