title: Forgotten electrical accidents and the birth of shockproof X-ray systems.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To commemorate victims of electrical accidents that occurred in the first decades of radiology and relate these accidents to the evolution of the X-ray apparatus.
  
  
  METHODS
  Digitised newspapers, scientific journals, books and reports of legal procedures were searched for electrical accidents involving X-ray systems. Information on the historical systems was retrieved from the scientific literature and brochures from manufacturers.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We found 51 fatal and 62 non-fatal but serious electrical accidents. Most of them occurred between 1920 and 1940 and involved transformers that provided output currents well above the threshold for the induction of ventricular fibrillation. The accidents led to recommendations and regulations to improve safety for operators and patients, and spurred manufacturers to technical developments that culminated in fully electrically shockproof systems by 1935.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Although largely forgotten, the development of the shockproof X-ray systems we take for granted today lasted about 4 decades and was associated with considerable human suffering. The complete solution of the problem is a success story of engineering realised by contributions from all parties involved.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  • The development of electrically shockproof X-ray systems took about 4 decades (1895-1935). • Between 1896 and 1920 electrical shocks from X-ray systems were common, but their consequences limited. • After 1920, transformers killed by delivering currents above the ventricular fibrillation threshold. • Inductors, static generators and high-frequency coils were generally low-current systems and safe. • We found 51 fatal and 62 serious non-fatal electrical accidents, most occurring from 1920 to 1940.
authors.affiliation: Departments of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, P. Debijelaan 25, 6229 HX, Maastricht, The Netherlands, gerrit.kemerink@mumc.nl.
authors.forename: Gerrit J
authors.initials: GJ
authors.lastname: Kemerink
authors.forename: Gerhard
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Kütterer
authors.forename: Andrew
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Wright
authors.forename: Frank
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Jones
authors.forename: Jeff
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Behary
authors.forename: Jan A M
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Hofman
authors.forename: Joachim E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Wildberger