title: The Protein 4.1 family: hub proteins in animals for organizing membrane proteins.
abstract: Proteins of the 4.1 family are characteristic of eumetazoan organisms. Invertebrates contain single 4.1 genes and the Drosophila model suggests that 4.1 is essential for animal life. Vertebrates have four paralogues, known as 4.1R, 4.1N, 4.1G and 4.1B, which are additionally duplicated in the ray-finned fish. Protein 4.1R was the first to be discovered: it is a major mammalian erythrocyte cytoskeletal protein, essential to the mechanochemical properties of red cell membranes because it promotes the interaction between spectrin and actin in the membrane cytoskeleton. 4.1R also binds certain phospholipids and is required for the stable cell surface accumulation of a number of erythrocyte transmembrane proteins that span multiple functional classes; these include cell adhesion molecules, transporters and a chemokine receptor. The vertebrate 4.1 proteins are expressed in most tissues, and they are required for the correct cell surface accumulation of a very wide variety of membrane proteins including G-Protein coupled receptors, voltage-gated and ligand-gated channels, as well as the classes identified in erythrocytes. Indeed, such large numbers of protein interactions have been mapped for mammalian 4.1 proteins, most especially 4.1R, that it appears that they can act as hubs for membrane protein organization. The range of critical interactions of 4.1 proteins is reflected in disease relationships that include hereditary anaemias, tumour suppression, control of heartbeat and nervous system function. The 4.1 proteins are defined by their domain structure: apart from the spectrin/actin-binding domain they have FERM and FERM-adjacent domains and a unique C-terminal domain. Both the FERM and C-terminal domains can bind transmembrane proteins, thus they have the potential to be cross-linkers for membrane proteins. The activity of the FERM domain is subject to multiple modes of regulation via binding of regulatory ligands, phosphorylation of the FERM associated domain and differential mRNA splicing. Finally, the spectrum of interactions of the 4.1 proteins overlaps with that of another membrane-cytoskeleton linker, ankyrin. Both ankyrin and 4.1 link to the actin cytoskeleton via spectrin, and we hypothesize that differential regulation of 4.1 proteins and ankyrins allows highly selective control of cell surface protein accumulation and, hence, function. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Reciprocal influences between cell cytoskeleton and membrane channels, receptors and transporters. Guest Editor: Jean Claude Hervé
authors.affiliation: School of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK.
authors.forename: Anthony J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Baines
authors.affiliation: Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, UK.
authors.forename: Hui-Chun
authors.initials: HC
authors.lastname: Lu
authors.affiliation: Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, UK. Electronic address: pauline.bennett@kcl.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Pauline M
authors.initials: PM
authors.lastname: Bennett
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003598:Cytoskeletal Proteins / Q000378:metabolism*; D008565:Membrane Proteins / Q000378:metabolism*
chemical_list: D003598:Cytoskeletal Proteins; D008565:Membrane Proteins; C028841:erythrocyte membrane band 4.1 protein
keywords: C-terminal domain; CTD; FA; FERM adjacent domain; FERM domain; Hub protein; Integral membrane protein; Membrane trafficking; SAB; Spectrin–actin binding domain; spectrin–actin binding domain