title: Early life exposure to antibiotics and the risk of childhood allergic diseases: an update from the perspective of the hygiene hypothesis.
abstract: The prevalence of allergic diseases has been growing rapidly in industrial countries during recent decades. It is postulated that growing up with less microbial exposure may render the immune system susceptible to a T helper type 2 (Th2)-predominant allergic response-also known as the hygiene hypothesis. This review delineates recent epidemiological and experimental evidence for the hygiene hypothesis, and integrates this hypothesis into the association between early life exposure to antibiotics and the development of allergic diseases and asthma. Several retrospective or prospective epidemiological studies reveal that early exposure to antibiotics may be positively associated with the development of allergic diseases and asthma. However, the conclusion is inconsistent. Experimental studies show that antibiotics may induce the Th2-skewed response by suppressing the T helper type 1 (Th1) response through inhibition of Th1 cytokines and disruption of the natural course of infection, or by disturbing the microflora of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and therefore jeopardizing the establishment of oral tolerance and regulatory T cell immune responses. The hygiene hypothesis may not be the only explanation for the rapid increase in the prevalence of allergic diseases and asthma. Further epidemiological and experimental studies addressing the issue of the impact of environmental factors on the development of allergic diseases and the underlying mechanisms may unveil novel strategies for the prevention and treatment of allergic diseases in the future.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Department of Pediatrics, Kaohsiung Municipal Ta-Tung Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Chang-Hung
authors.initials: CH
authors.lastname: Kuo
authors.forename: Hsuan-Fu
authors.initials: HF
authors.lastname: Kuo
authors.forename: Ching-Hua
authors.initials: CH
authors.lastname: Huang
authors.forename: San-Nan
authors.initials: SN
authors.lastname: Yang
authors.forename: Min-Sheng
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.forename: Chih-Hsing
authors.initials: CH
authors.lastname: Hung
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D001249:Asthma / Q000453:epidemiology; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D006801:Humans; D061148:Hygiene Hypothesis; D006967:Hypersensitivity / Q000453:epidemiology*; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D015995:Prevalence; D018570:Risk Assessment
chemical_list: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents
keywords: Allergic disease; Antibiotics; Asthma; Dendritic cells; Hygiene hypothesis