title: Cognitive training and cognitive rehabilitation for mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Cognitive impairments, particularly memory problems, are a defining feature of the early stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and vascular dementia. Cognitive training and cognitive rehabilitation are specific interventional approaches designed to address difficulties with memory and other aspects of cognitive functioning. The present review is an update of previous versions of this review.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The main aim of the current review was to evaluate the effectiveness and impact of cognitive training and cognitive rehabilitation for people with mild Alzheimer's disease or vascular dementia in relation to important cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes for the person with dementia and the primary caregiver in the short, medium and long term.
  
  
  METHODS
  The CDCIG Specialized Register, ALOIS, which contains records from MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, LILACS and many other clinical trial databases and grey literature sources, was most recently searched on 2 November 2012.
  
  
  METHODS
  Randomised controlled trials (RCTs), published in English, comparing cognitive rehabilitation or cognitive training interventions with control conditions, and reporting relevant outcomes for the person with dementia and/or the family caregiver, were considered for inclusion.
  
  
  METHODS
  Eleven RCTs reporting cognitive training interventions were included in the review. A large number of measures were used in the different studies, and meta-analysis could be conducted for 11 of the primary and secondary outcomes of interest. Several outcomes were not measured in any of the studies. The unit of analysis in the meta-analysis was the change from baseline score. Overall estimates of treatment effect were calculated using a fixed-effect model, and statistical heterogeneity was measured using a standard Chi(2) statistic. One RCT of cognitive rehabilitation was identified, allowing examination of effect sizes, but no meta-analysis could be conducted.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Cognitive training was not associated with positive or negative effects in relation to any reported outcomes. The overall quality of the trials was low to moderate. The single RCT of cognitive rehabilitation found promising results in relation to a number of participant and caregiver outcomes, and was generally of high quality.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Available evidence regarding cognitive training remains limited, and the quality of the evidence needs to improve. However, there is still no indication of any significant benefit derived from cognitive training. Trial reports indicate that some gains resulting from intervention may not be captured adequately by available standardised outcome measures. The results of the single RCT of cognitive rehabilitation show promise but are preliminary in nature. Further, well-designed studies of cognitive training and cognitive rehabilitation are required to obtain more definitive evidence. Researchers should describe and classify their interventions appropriately using available terminology.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Research on Ageing, Health, and Wellbeing, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia. alex.baharfuchs@anu.edu.au
authors.forename: Alex
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Bahar-Fuchs
authors.forename: Linda
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Clare
authors.forename: Bob
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Woods
mesh_terms: D000544:Alzheimer Disease / Q000534:rehabilitation*; D015928:Cognitive Behavioral Therapy / Q000379:methods*; D015140:Dementia, Vascular / Q000534:rehabilitation*; D006801:Humans; D016032:Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic