title: Subthreshold Depressive Symptoms have a Negative Impact on Cognitive Functioning in Middle-Aged and Older Males.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Cognitive aging is associated with a decline on measures of fluid intelligence (gF), whereas crystallized intelligence (gC) tends to remain stable. In the present study we asked if depressive symptoms might contribute to explain the decline on gF in a sample of healthy middle-aged and older adults.
  
  
  METHODS
  The Norwegian sample included 83 females and 42 males (M = 60, SD = 7.9 years). gF was calculated from factor-analysis, including tests of matrix reasoning (WASI), memory function (CVLT-II), processing speed and executive function (CDT; CWIT). gC was derived from a Vocabulary subtest (WASI). Depressive symptoms were assessed by self-reports on Beck's Depression Index (BDI) and ranged from 0 to 21 (M = 6, SD = 4.5).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Increased age was correlated with a decline on gF (r = -0.436, p  < 0.001), but not gC (r=-0.103, p = ns.). The BDI score in the whole sample was correlated with gF (r = -0.313, p < 0.001). A more detailed analysis showed that the BDI score correlated with measures of both gF and gC in males. The correlations were non-significant for females on all measures, with the exception of a measure of processing speed/executive function. A regression analysis including age and sex in the first step, showed that symptoms of depression significantly contributed to explain decline on gF, F(3, 124) = 16.653, p < 0.001, R? = 0.292, ΔR? = 0.054.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results showed that symptoms of depression were negatively correlated with cognitive functioning in males even when the symptom-level was below clinical threshold. This indicates that minimal symptoms of depression in older men are clinically relevant to address.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological and Medical Psychology, University of Bergen , Bergen , Norway ; K.G. Jebsen Centre for Research on Neuropsychiatric Disorders , Bergen , Norway.
authors.forename: Erlend J
authors.initials: EJ
authors.lastname: Brevik
authors.forename: Rune A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Eikeland
authors.forename: Astri J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Lundervold
keywords: aging; cognition; crystallized intelligence; depression; fluid intelligence; neuropsychology; sex-differences; subthreshold depressive symptoms