title: Body enhancement through female genital cosmetic surgery creates ethical and rights dilemmas.
abstract: Female genital cosmetic surgery is surgery performed on a woman within a normal range of variation of human anatomy. The issues are heightened by a lack of long-term and substantive evidence-based literature, conflict of interest from personal financial gain through performing these procedures, and confusion around macroethical and microethical domains. It is a source of conflict and controversy globally because the benefit and harm of offering these procedures raise concerns about harmful cultural views, education, and social vulnerability of women with regard to both ethics and human rights. The rights issues of who is defining normal female anatomy and function, as well as the economic vulnerability of women globally, bequeath the profession a greater responsibility to ensure that there is adequate health and general education-not just among patients but broadly in society-that there is neither limitation nor interference in the decision being made, and that there are no psychological disorders that could be influencing such choices.
authors.affiliation: Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, University of Massachusetts, Worcester, MA 01605, USA. joanna.cain@umassmemorial.org
authors.forename: Joanna M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Cain
authors.forename: Cheryl B
authors.initials: CB
authors.lastname: Iglesia
authors.forename: Bernard
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Dickens
authors.forename: Owen
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Montgomery
mesh_terms: D003657:Decision Making; D004992:Ethics, Medical; D005260:Female; D005836:Genitalia, Female / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000601:surgery*; D014943:Global Health; D006266:Health Education; D006801:Humans; D019651:Plastic Surgery Procedures / Q000941:ethics / Q000379:methods*; D014933:Women's Rights