title: Antimicrobial silver: uses, toxicity and potential for resistance.
abstract: This review gives a comprehensive overview of the widespread use and toxicity of silver compounds in many biological applications. Moreover, the bacterial silver resistance mechanisms and their spread in the environment are discussed. This study shows that it is important to understand in detail how silver and silver nanoparticles exert their toxicity and to understand how bacteria acquire silver resistance. Silver ions have shown to possess strong antimicrobial properties but cause no immediate and serious risk for human health, which led to an extensive use of silver-based products in many applications. However, the risk of silver nanoparticles is not yet clarified and their widespread use could increase silver release in the environment, which can have negative impacts on ecosystems. Moreover, it is shown that silver resistance determinants are widely spread among environmental and clinically relevant bacteria. These resistance determinants are often located on mobile genetic elements, facilitating their spread. Therefore, detailed knowledge of the silver toxicity and resistance mechanisms can improve its applications and lead to a better understanding of the impact on human health and ecosystems.
authors.affiliation: Unit of Microbiology, Expert Group Molecular and Cellular Biology, Belgian Nuclear Research Centre SCK.CEN, Boeretang 200, 2400, Mol, Belgium.
authors.forename: Kristel
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Mijnendonckx
authors.forename: Natalie
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Leys
authors.forename: Jacques
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Mahillon
authors.forename: Simon
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Silver
authors.forename: Rob
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Van Houdt
mesh_terms: D000890:Anti-Infective Agents / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000494:pharmacology*; D024881:Drug Resistance, Bacterial; D012834:Silver / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000494:pharmacology*; D018030:Silver Compounds / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000494:pharmacology
chemical_list: D000890:Anti-Infective Agents; D018030:Silver Compounds; D012834:Silver