title: Cephalometric assessment of human fetal head specimens.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Past investigations of prenatal craniofacial growth have largely relied on histological sections. Few studies have taken measurements on three-dimensional representations (3D reconstruction, 3D CT, postmortem) or varying depth levels (ultrasound), and we know of no craniofacial growth studies done on cleared-and-stained specimens of whole fetal heads.
  
  
  METHODS
  This study comprised 14 human fetal head specimens cleared and stained with alizarin red and alcian blue. They had been stored in glycerol and represented weeks 8-12 of gestation, with crown-rump lengths ranging from 23-145 mm. These specimens were cephalometrically analyzed in norma frontalis and norma lateralis, which notably included the opportunity for side-to-side comparison.
  
  
  RESULTS
  As the cranial membrane bones progressively approached each other, the orbits, maxilla, and mandible gradually grew wider. Likewise, the sagittal dimensions of the maxilla and mandible increased continuously and synchronically. We noted side-to-side differences ranging from 2-5 mm. Another notable finding concerned the inclination of the maxilla relative to the cranial base, which increased more on the right than on the left side.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This is the first investigation presenting side-to-side comparative measurements of human fetal head specimens. Such measurements are essential in the quest toward validating the findings of other imaging techniques such as CT or MRI and-most importantly-intrauterine sonography.
authors.affiliation: Center for Dental and Craniofacial Sciences, Department of Craniofacial Developmental Biology, Charité - Campus Benjamin Franklin at Freie Universität Berlin, Assmannshauser Str. 4-6, 14197, Berlin, Germany. ralfj.radlanski@charite.de
authors.forename: R J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Radlanski
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Heikinheimo
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Gruda
mesh_terms: D002508:Cephalometry / Q000379:methods*; D005147:Facial Bones / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000196:embryology* / Q000254:growth & development; D005260:Female; D006257:Head / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000196:embryology* / Q000254:growth & development; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008445:Maxillofacial Development / Q000502:physiology*