title: In vitro investigation of the bioaccessibility of carotenoids from raw, frozen and boiled red chili peppers (Capsicum annuum).
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Carotenoid-rich foods are associated with antioxidant activity and the ability to alleviate chronic diseases.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The present study investigated the effect of processing on the content and bioaccessibility of carotenoids from 13 cultivars of red chili pepper (Capsicum annuum).
  
  
  METHODS
  Carotenoids in chili peppers were analyzed before an in vitro digestion process. The portion of carotenoid transferred to the micelle fraction (bioaccessibility) was also quantified.
  
  
  RESULTS
  β-Carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, capsanthin and antheraxanthin were the most abundant carotenoids. Zeaxanthin, violaxanthin, neoxanthin and lutein were detected at lower concentrations. In general, freezing and boiling reduced carotenoid contents. Capsanthin and zeaxanthin had the highest bioaccessibility at an average value from 36 to 40%, followed by antheraxanthin (26%). Bioaccessibility of β-cryptoxanthin, violaxanthin and β-carotene was lower, averaging 6.1, 4.8 and 4.0%, respectively. Neoxanthin and lutein were not detected in micelles. Freezing increased the bioaccessibility of capsanthin, zeaxanthin, antheraxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin and violaxanthin; β-cryptoxanthin bioaccessibility increased and capsanthin and zeaxanthin bioaccessibility decreased following boiling.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Differences in the contents and bioaccessibility of carotenoids in 13 C. annuum cultivars and between the processed methods were herein evidenced.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036, Rende, CS, Italy.
authors.forename: Alessandro
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Pugliese
authors.forename: Yvonne
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: O'Callaghan
authors.forename: Rosa
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Tundis
authors.forename: Karen
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Galvin
authors.forename: Francesco
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Menichini
authors.forename: Nora
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: O'Brien
authors.forename: Monica Rosa
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Loizzo
mesh_terms: D001682:Biological Availability; D002212:Capsicum / Q000737:chemistry*; D002338:Carotenoids / Q000032:analysis / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*; D065366:Cryptoxanthins; D004063:Digestion; D005511:Food Handling / Q000379:methods*; D005615:Freezing; D006358:Hot Temperature; D066298:In Vitro Techniques; D013045:Species Specificity; D024341:Xanthophylls / Q000032:analysis / Q000493:pharmacokinetics / Q000494:pharmacology; D065146:Zeaxanthins; D019207:beta Carotene / Q000032:analysis / Q000493:pharmacokinetics
chemical_list: D065366:Cryptoxanthins; D024341:Xanthophylls; D065146:Zeaxanthins; D019207:beta Carotene; C031140:antheraxanthin; D002338:Carotenoids; C006889:capsanthin