title: Spatial and temporal estimation of air pollutants in New York City: exposure assignment for use in a birth outcomes study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Recent epidemiological studies have examined the associations between air pollution and birth outcomes. Regulatory air quality monitors often used in these studies, however, were spatially sparse and unable to capture relevant within-city variation in exposure during pregnancy.
  
  
  METHODS
  This study developed two-week average exposure estimates for fine particles (PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) during pregnancy for 274,996 New York City births in 2008-2010. The two-week average exposures were constructed by first developing land use regression (LUR) models of spatial variation in annual average PM2.5 and NO2 data from 150 locations in the New York City Community Air Survey and emissions source data near monitors. The annual average concentrations from the spatial models were adjusted to account for city-wide temporal trends using time series derived from regulatory monitors. Models were developed using Year 1 data and validated using Year 2 data. Two-week average exposures were then estimated for three buffers of maternal address and were averaged into the last six weeks, the trimesters, and the entire period of gestation. We characterized temporal variation of exposure estimates, correlation between PM2.5 and NO2, and correlation of exposures across trimesters.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The LUR models of average annual concentrations explained a substantial amount of the spatial variation (R2 = 0.79 for PM2.5 and 0.80 for NO2). In the validation, predictions of Year 2 two-week average concentrations showed strong agreement with measured concentrations (R2 = 0.83 for PM2.5 and 0.79 for NO2). PM2.5 exhibited greater temporal variation than NO2. The relative contribution of temporal vs. spatial variation in the estimated exposures varied by time window. The differing seasonal cycle of these pollutants (bi-annual for PM2.5 and annual for NO2) resulted in different patterns of correlations in the estimated exposures across trimesters. The three levels of spatial buffer did not make a substantive difference in estimated exposures.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The combination of spatially resolved monitoring data, LUR models and temporal adjustment using regulatory monitoring data yielded exposure estimates for PM2.5 and NO2 that performed well in validation tests. The interaction between seasonality of air pollution and exposure intervals during pregnancy needs to be considered in future studies.
authors.affiliation: ZevRoss Spatial Analysis, 120 N, Aurora St Suite 3A, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA. zev@zevross.com
authors.forename: Zev
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Ross
authors.forename: Kazuhiko
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Ito
authors.forename: Sarah
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Johnson
authors.forename: Michelle
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Yee
authors.forename: Grant
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Pezeshki
authors.forename: Jane E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Clougherty
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Savitz
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Matte
mesh_terms: D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000032:analysis*; D015331:Cohort Studies; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D009519:New York City; D009585:Nitrogen Dioxide / Q000032:analysis*; D010316:Particle Size; D052638:Particulate Matter / Q000032:analysis*; D011247:Pregnancy
chemical_list: D000393:Air Pollutants; D052638:Particulate Matter; D009585:Nitrogen Dioxide