title: Screening for lung cancer.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  This is an updated version of the original review published in The Cochrane Library in 1999 and updated in 2004 and 2010. Population-based screening for lung cancer has not been adopted in the majority of countries. However it is not clear whether sputum examinations, chest radiography or newer methods such as computed tomography (CT) are effective in reducing mortality from lung cancer.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To determine whether screening for lung cancer, using regular sputum examinations, chest radiography or CT scanning of the chest, reduces lung cancer mortality.
  
  
  METHODS
  We searched electronic databases: the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library 2012, Issue 5), MEDLINE (1966 to 2012), PREMEDLINE and EMBASE (to 2012) and bibliographies. We handsearched the journal Lung Cancer (to 2000) and contacted experts in the field to identify published and unpublished trials.
  
  
  METHODS
  Controlled trials of screening for lung cancer using sputum examinations, chest radiography or chest CT.
  
  
  METHODS
  We performed an intention-to-screen analysis. Where there was significant statistical heterogeneity, we reported risk ratios (RRs) using the random-effects model. For other outcomes we used the fixed-effect model.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We included nine trials in the review (eight randomised controlled studies and one controlled trial) with a total of 453,965 subjects. In one large study that included both smokers and non-smokers comparing annual chest x-ray screening with usual care there was no reduction in lung cancer mortality (RR 0.99, 95% CI 0.91 to 1.07). In a meta-analysis of studies comparing different frequencies of chest x-ray screening, frequent screening with chest x-rays was associated with an 11% relative increase in mortality from lung cancer compared with less frequent screening (RR 1.11, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.23); however several of the trials included in this meta-analysis had potential methodological weaknesses. We observed a non-statistically significant trend to reduced mortality from lung cancer when screening with chest x-ray and sputum cytology was compared with chest x-ray alone (RR 0.88, 95% CI 0.74 to 1.03). There was one large methodologically rigorous trial in high-risk smokers and ex-smokers (those aged 55 to 74 years with ≥ 30 pack-years of smoking and who quit ≤ 15 years prior to entry if ex-smokers) comparing annual low-dose CT screening with annual chest x-ray screening; in this study the relative risk of death from lung cancer was significantly reduced in the low-dose CT group (RR 0.80, 95% CI 0.70 to 0.92).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The current evidence does not support screening for lung cancer with chest radiography or sputum cytology. Annual low-dose CT screening is associated with a reduction in lung cancer mortality in high-risk smokers but further data are required on the cost effectiveness of screening and the relative harms and benefits of screening across a range of different risk groups and settings.
authors.affiliation: Department of Haematology and Medical Oncology, Peter MacCallum Cancer Institute, St Andrew's Place, East Melbourne 3002, Victoria, and Department of Respiratory Medicine, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Australia. Renee.Manser@petermac.org.
authors.forename: Renée
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Manser
authors.forename: Anne
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Lethaby
authors.forename: Louis B
authors.initials: LB
authors.lastname: Irving
authors.forename: Christine
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Stone
authors.forename: Graham
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Byrnes
authors.forename: Michael J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Abramson
authors.forename: Don
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Campbell
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D018849:Controlled Clinical Trials as Topic; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008175:Lung Neoplasms / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging* / Q000401:mortality / Q000473:pathology*; D008297:Male; D013902:Radiography, Thoracic; D016032:Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects; D013183:Sputum / Q000166:cytology; D014057:Tomography, X-Ray Computed