title: Neuroprosthetic technology for individuals with spinal cord injury.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in a loss of function and sensation below the level of the lesion. Neuroprosthetic technology has been developed to help restore motor and autonomic functions as well as to provide sensory feedback.
  
  
  RESULTS
  This paper provides an overview of neuroprosthetic technology that aims to address the priorities for functional restoration as defined by individuals with SCI. We describe neuroprostheses that are in various stages of preclinical development, clinical testing, and commercialization including functional electrical stimulators, epidural and intraspinal microstimulation, bladder neuroprosthesis, and cortical stimulation for restoring sensation. We also discuss neural recording technologies that may provide command or feedback signals for neuroprosthetic devices.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Neuroprostheses have begun to address the priorities of individuals with SCI, although there remains room for improvement. In addition to continued technological improvements, closing the loop between the technology and the user may help provide intuitive device control with high levels of performance.
authors.affiliation: Department of Veterans Affairs, Pittsburgh, PA 15206, USA. collingr@pitt.edu
authors.forename: Jennifer L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Collinger
authors.forename: Stephen
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Foldes
authors.forename: Tim M
authors.initials: TM
authors.lastname: Bruns
authors.forename: Brian
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Wodlinger
authors.forename: Robert
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Gaunt
authors.forename: Douglas J
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Weber
mesh_terms: D062207:Brain-Computer Interfaces; D004599:Electric Stimulation Therapy / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods; D004576:Electromyography / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods; D025461:Feedback, Physiological; D006801:Humans; D019736:Prostheses and Implants; D020127:Recovery of Function; D013119:Spinal Cord Injuries / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000534:rehabilitation*; D001743:Urinary Bladder / Q000503:physiopathology