title: Behavioral and physiological responses to subgroup size and number of people in howler monkeys inhabiting a forest fragment used for nature-based tourism.
abstract: Animals' responses to potentially threatening factors can provide important information for their conservation. Group size and human presence are potentially threatening factors to primates inhabiting small reserves used for recreation. We tested these hypotheses by evaluating behavioral and physiological responses in two groups of mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata mexicana) at the "Centro Ecológico y Recreativo El Zapotal", a recreational forest reserve and zoo located in the Mexican state of Chiapas. Both groups presented fission-fusion dynamics, splitting into foraging subgroups which varied in size among, but not within days. Neither subgroup size nor number of people had an effect on fecal cortisol. Out of 16 behavioral response variables tested, the studied factors had effects on six: four were affected by subgroup size and two were affected by number of people. With increasing subgroup size, monkeys increased daily path lengths, rested less, increased foraging effort, and used more plant individuals for feeding. As the number of people increased, monkeys spent more time in lower-quality habitat, and less time engaged in social interactions. Although fecal cortisol levels were not affected by the factors studied, one of the monkey groups had almost twice the level of cortisol compared to the other group. The group with higher cortisol levels also spent significantly more time in the lower-quality habitat, compared to the other group. Our results suggest that particular behavioral adjustments might allow howler monkeys at El Zapotal to avoid physiological stress due to subgroup size and number of people. However, the fact that one of the monkey groups is showing increased cortisol levels may be interpreted as a warning sign, indicating that an adjustment threshold is being reached, at least for part of the howler monkey population in this forest fragment.
authors.affiliation: Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico; Centro de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico.
authors.forename: Adriana R
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Aguilar-Melo
authors.forename: Ellen
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Andresen
authors.forename: Jurgi
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Cristóbal-Azkarate
authors.forename: Victor
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Arroyo-Rodríguez
authors.forename: Roberto
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Chavira
authors.forename: Jorge
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Schondube
authors.forename: Juan Carlos
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Serio-Silva
authors.forename: Alfredo D
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Cuarón
mesh_terms: D000223:Adaptation, Psychological; D000508:Alouatta / Q000502:physiology* / Q000523:psychology*; D000818:Animals; D001522:Behavior, Animal / Q000502:physiology*; D003247:Conservation of Natural Resources; D017753:Ecosystem; D056727:Endangered Species; D005243:Feces / Q000737:chemistry; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000032:analysis; D008297:Male; D008800:Mexico; D011156:Population Density; D013315:Stress, Psychological; D014195:Travel; D014197:Trees
chemical_list: D006854:Hydrocortisone
keywords: cortisol; forest fragmentation; primate conservation; stress; tourism; zoo