title: Enhanced orbitofrontal cortex function and lack of attentional bias to cocaine cues in recreational stimulant users.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Although cocaine is known to be a highly addictive drug, there appears to be a select subset of individuals who are able to use the substance recreationally without developing dependence. These individuals do not report experiencing feelings of craving for cocaine, an important distinction from dependent users. However, no prior studies have compared attentional bias with cocaine cues between these groups to confirm this difference. Additionally, previous investigations into cognitive abilities in these individuals have been conflicting, and no research has been conducted on the neurobiological processes underlying cognitive functioning in this group.
  
  
  METHODS
  This study administered the emotional cocaine-word Stroop to 27 recreational cocaine users, 50 stimulant-dependent individuals, and 52 healthy control participants during functional magnetic resonance imaging scanning. Behavioral and functional imaging results were compared between groups to assess attentional bias and cognitive effort to resist salient cocaine stimuli.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Recreational users did not exhibit attentional bias to the cocaine words and did not differ from control subjects on task performance. Conversely, stimulant-dependent individuals were significantly more impaired on the task. Recreational participants also displayed a unique pattern of activation during performance, with significant underactivation in the orbitofrontal and anterior cingulate cortices compared with both dependent users and control subjects.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The absence of bias to cocaine-related stimuli in recreational users indicates they do not share attentional preference for these words with dependent users. Their distinct pattern of activation suggests a decreased need for cognitive control due to diminished desire for the drug, potentially serving as a resilience factor against dependence.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology and Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Electronic address: ds555@cam.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Dana G
authors.initials: DG
authors.lastname: Smith
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology and Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Simon Jones
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology and Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom; GlaxoSmithKline, Clinical Unit Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Cambridgeshire and Peterborough National Health Service Foundation Trust, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Edward T
authors.initials: ET
authors.lastname: Bullmore
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology and Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Trevor W
authors.initials: TW
authors.lastname: Robbins
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology and Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Karen D
authors.initials: KD
authors.lastname: Ersche
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001288:Attention / Q000502:physiology*; D016739:Behavior, Addictive / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology; D003042:Cocaine / Q000009:adverse effects*; D019970:Cocaine-Related Disorders / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000523:psychology*; D003463:Cues; D055030:Drug Users / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D005625:Frontal Lobe / Q000503:physiopathology*; D059907:Functional Neuroimaging; D006801:Humans; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D008297:Male; D057190:Stroop Test; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D003042:Cocaine
keywords: Cocaine; Stroop; craving; fMRI; orbitofrontal cortex; recreational