title: Phylogeny and evolutionary history of glycogen synthase kinase 3/SHAGGY-like kinase genes in land plants.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  GSK3 (glycogen synthase kinase 3) genes encode signal transduction proteins with roles in a variety of biological processes in eukaryotes. In contrast to the low copy numbers observed in animals, GSK3 genes have expanded into a multi-gene family in land plants (embryophytes), and have also evolved functions in diverse plant specific processes, including floral development in angiosperms. However, despite previous efforts, the phylogeny of land plant GSK3 genes is currently unclear. Here, we analyze genes from a representative sample of phylogenetically pivotal taxa, including basal angiosperms, gymnosperms, and monilophytes, to reconstruct the evolutionary history and functional diversification of the GSK3 gene family in land plants.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Maximum Likelihood phylogenetic analyses resolve a gene tree with four major gene duplication events that coincide with the emergence of novel land plant clades. The single GSK3 gene inherited from the ancestor of land plants was first duplicated along the ancestral branch to extant vascular plants, and three subsequent duplications produced three GSK3 loci in the ancestor of euphyllophytes, four in the ancestor of seed plants, and at least five in the ancestor of angiosperms. A single gene in the Amborella trichopoda genome may be the sole survivor of a sixth GSK3 locus that originated in the ancestor of extant angiosperms. Homologs of two Arabidopsis GSK3 genes with genetically confirmed roles in floral development, AtSK11 and AtSK12, exhibit floral preferential expression in several basal angiosperms, suggesting evolutionary conservation of their floral functions. Members of other gene lineages appear to have independently evolved roles in plant reproductive tissues in individual taxa.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our phylogenetic analyses provide the most detailed reconstruction of GSK3 gene evolution in land plants to date and offer new insights into the origins, relationships, and functions of family members. Notably, the diversity of this "green" branch of the gene family has increased in concert with the increasing morphological and physiological complexity of land plant life forms. Expression data for seed plants indicate that the functions of GSK3 genes have also diversified during evolutionary time.
authors.affiliation: Key Laboratory of Conservation Biology for Endangered Wildlife of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
authors.forename: Xinshuai
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Qi
authors.forename: André S
authors.initials: AS
authors.lastname: Chanderbali
authors.forename: Gane Ka-Shu
authors.initials: GK
authors.lastname: Wong
authors.forename: Douglas E
authors.initials: DE
authors.lastname: Soltis
authors.forename: Pamela S
authors.initials: PS
authors.lastname: Soltis
mesh_terms: D001483:Base Sequence; D019669:Embryophyta / Q000145:classification / Q000201:enzymology* / Q000235:genetics; D019143:Evolution, Molecular; D020440:Gene Duplication; D038362:Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3 / Q000235:genetics* / Q000378:metabolism; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D010802:Phylogeny; D010940:Plant Proteins / Q000235:genetics*
chemical_list: D010940:Plant Proteins; D038362:Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3