title: Central nervous targets for the treatment of bladder dysfunction.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The functions of the lower urinary tract, to store and periodically release urine, are dependent on the activity of smooth and striated muscles in the urinary bladder, urethra, and external urethral sphincter. This activity is in turn controlled by neural circuits in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral ganglia.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  This paper will review recent advances in our understanding of the pathophysiology of voiding disorders, especially focusing on the central nervous system.
  
  
  METHODS
  Various neurotransmitters, including acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, excitatory and inhibitory amino acids, adenosine triphosphate, nitric oxide, and neuropeptides, have been implicated in the neural regulation of the lower urinary tract.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Injuries or diseases of the nervous system, as well as drugs and disorders of the peripheral organs, can produce voiding dysfunctions such as urinary frequency, urgency, or incontinence.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We discuss the potential targets in the central nervous system and new modalities for the treatment of voiding dysfunction.
authors.affiliation: Department of Urology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
authors.forename: Naoki
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Yoshimura
authors.forename: Minoru
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Miyazato
authors.forename: Takeya
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Kitta
authors.forename: Satoru
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Yoshikawa
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001921:Brain / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000503:physiopathology; D002491:Central Nervous System Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D006801:Humans; D016896:Treatment Outcome; D001743:Urinary Bladder / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000294:innervation / Q000503:physiopathology; D053201:Urinary Bladder, Overactive / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000503:physiopathology; D014554:Urination / Q000187:drug effects; D014563:Urodynamics / Q000187:drug effects; D064804:Urological Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*
chemical_list: D002491:Central Nervous System Agents; D064804:Urological Agents
keywords: GABA; adenosine; bladder overactivity; central nervous system; gene therapy; glycine