title: Regulation of Constitutive GPR3 Signaling and Surface Localization by GRK2 and β-arrestin-2 Overexpression in HEK293 Cells.
abstract: G protein-coupled receptor 3 (GPR3) is a constitutively active receptor that maintains high 3'-5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels required for meiotic arrest in oocytes and CNS function. Ligand-activated G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) signal at the cell surface and are silenced by phosphorylation and β-arrestin recruitment upon endocytosis. Some GPCRs can also signal from endosomes following internalization. Little is known about the localization, signaling, and regulation of constitutively active GPCRs. We demonstrate herein that exogenously-expressed GPR3 localizes to the cell membrane and undergoes internalization in HEK293 cells. Inhibition of endocytosis increased cell surface-localized GPR3 and cAMP levels while overexpression of GPCR-Kinase 2 (GRK2) and β-arrestin-2 decreased cell surface-localized GPR3 and cAMP levels. GRK2 by itself is sufficient to decrease cAMP production but both GRK2 and β-arrestin-2 are required to decrease cell surface GPR3. GRK2 regulates GPR3 independently of its kinase activity since a kinase inactive GRK2-K220R mutant significantly decreased cAMP levels. However, GRK2-K220R and β-arrestin-2 do not diminish cell surface GPR3, suggesting that phosphorylation is required to induce GPR3 internalization. To understand which residues are targeted for desensitization, we mutated potential phosphorylation sites in the third intracellular loop and C-terminus and examined the effect on cAMP and receptor surface localization. Mutation of residues in the third intracellular loop dramatically increased cAMP levels whereas mutation of residues in the C-terminus produced cAMP levels comparable to GPR3 wild type. Interestingly, both mutations significantly reduced cell surface expression of GPR3. These results demonstrate that GPR3 signals at the plasma membrane and can be silenced by GRK2/β-arrestin overexpression. These results also strongly implicate the serine and/or threonine residues in the third intracellular loop in the regulation of GPR3 activity.
authors.affiliation: Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, United States of America.
authors.forename: Katie M
authors.initials: KM
authors.lastname: Lowther
authors.forename: Tracy F
authors.initials: TF
authors.lastname: Uliasz
authors.forename: Konrad R
authors.initials: KR
authors.lastname: Götz
authors.forename: Viacheslav O
authors.initials: VO
authors.lastname: Nikolaev
authors.forename: Lisa M
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Mehlmann
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002462:Cell Membrane / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism*; D000242:Cyclic AMP / Q000378:metabolism; D034281:Dynamins / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism; D004705:Endocytosis / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D054769:G-Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinase 2 / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors / Q000378:metabolism*; D057809:HEK293 Cells; D006801:Humans; D042541:Intracellular Space / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D051379:Mice; D009154:Mutation; D010766:Phosphorylation; D000072417:Protein Domains; D047428:Protein Kinase Inhibitors / Q000494:pharmacology; D043562:Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D015398:Signal Transduction; D000071560:beta-Arrestin 2 / Q000378:metabolism*
chemical_list: C000605254:ARRB2 protein, human; C092794:GPR3 protein, human; C494613:GPR3 protein, mouse; D047428:Protein Kinase Inhibitors; D043562:Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled; D000071560:beta-Arrestin 2; D000242:Cyclic AMP; C496567:GRK2 protein, human; D054769:G-Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinase 2; D034281:Dynamins