title: Developmental coupling of larval and adult stages in a complex life cycle: insights from limb regeneration in the flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  A complex life cycle, such as complete metamorphosis, is a key innovation that can promote diversification of species. The evolution of a morphologically distinct larval stage is thought to have enabled insects to occupy broader ecological niches and become the most diverse metazoan taxon, yet the extent to which larval and adult morphologies can evolve independently remains unknown. Perturbation of larval limb regeneration allows us to generate larval legs and antennae with altered limb morphologies, which may be used to explore the developmental continuity that might exist between larval and adult appendages. In this study, we determined the roles of several appendage patterning transcription factors, abrupt (ab), dachshund (dac), Distal-less (Dll), and spineless (ss), in the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, during larval appendage regeneration. The functions of these genes in regenerating and non-regenerating limbs were compared using RNA interference.
  
  
  RESULTS
  During limb regeneration, dac and ss were necessary to re-pattern the same larval structures as those patterned during embryogenesis. Removal of these two genes led to larval appendage patterning defects that were carried over to the adult legs. Surprisingly, even though maternal knockdown of ab had minimal effects on limb allocation and patterning in the embryo, it was necessary for blastema growth, an earlier phase of regeneration. Finally, knockdown of Dll prevented the blastema-like bumps from re-differentiating into appendages.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results suggest that, similar to vertebrates, the re-patterning phase of Tribolium larval limb regeneration relies on the same genes that are used during embryonic limb patterning. Thus, the re-patterning phase of regeneration is likely to be regulated by taxon-specific patterning mechanisms. Furthermore, Ab and Dll appear to play important roles during blastema proliferation and re-differentiation, respectively. Finally, our results show that continuity exists between larval and adult limb patterning, and that larval and adult leg morphologies may be developmentally coupled. Thus, the evolution of imaginal discs may have been a key step towards completely removing any developmental constraints that existed between larval and adult phenotypes.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, Wellesley College, 106 Central St., Wellesley, MA 02481, USA.
authors.forename: Alison K
authors.initials: AK
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, Wellesley College, 106 Central St., Wellesley, MA 02481, USA.
authors.forename: Christie C
authors.initials: CC
authors.lastname: Sze
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, Wellesley College, 106 Central St., Wellesley, MA 02481, USA.
authors.forename: Elaine R
authors.initials: ER
authors.lastname: Kim
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, Wellesley College, 106 Central St., Wellesley, MA 02481, USA.
authors.forename: Yuichiro
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Suzuki