title: Biomarkers in pulmonary hypertension: what do we know?
abstract: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a hemodynamic condition that has a poor prognosis and can lead to right-sided heart failure. It may result from common diseases such as left-sided heart or lung disease or may present as the rare entity of idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension. Biomarkers that specifically indicate the pathologic mechanism, the severity of the disease, and the treatment response would be ideal tools for the management of PH. In this review, markers related to heart failure, inflammation, hemostasis, remodeling, and endothelial cell-smooth muscle cell interaction are discussed, and their limitations are emphasized. Anemia, hypocarbia, elevated uric acid, and C-reactive protein levels are unspecific markers of disease severity. Brain natriuretic peptide and N-terminal fragment of pro-brain natriuretic peptide have been recommended in current guidelines, whereas other prognostic markers, such as growth differentiation factor-15, osteopontin, and red cell distribution width, are emerging. Chemokines of the CC family and matrix metalloproteases have been linked to the vascular pathologic mechanisms, and new markers such as apelin have been described. Circulating endothelial and progenitor cells have received much attention as markers of disease activity, but with controversial findings. A lack of standards for cell isolation and characterization methods and differences in the pathologic mechanisms of the investigated patients may have contributed to the discrepancies. In conclusion, although several promising markers have been identified over the past few years, the development of more specific markers, standardization, and prospective validation are warranted.
authors.affiliation: Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, the Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonology, the Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.
authors.forename: Vasile
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Foris
authors.affiliation: Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, the Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonology, the Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.
authors.forename: Gabor
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Kovacs
authors.affiliation: Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, the Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonology, the Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.
authors.forename: Maria
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Tscherner
authors.affiliation: Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, the Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria; Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care, Experimental Anesthesiology, the Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.
authors.forename: Andrea
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Olschewski
authors.affiliation: Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, the Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonology, the Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria. Electronic address: horst.olschewski@medunigraz.at.
authors.forename: Horst
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Olschewski
mesh_terms: D015415:Biomarkers / Q000097:blood; D042783:Endothelial Cells / Q000473:pathology; D065627:Familial Primary Pulmonary Hypertension; D055436:Growth Differentiation Factor 15 / Q000097:blood; D006801:Humans; D006976:Hypertension, Pulmonary / Q000097:blood* / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000473:pathology; D020097:Natriuretic Peptide, Brain / Q000097:blood*; D053495:Osteopontin / Q000097:blood; D010446:Peptide Fragments / Q000097:blood*; D011379:Prognosis
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D055436:Growth Differentiation Factor 15; D010446:Peptide Fragments; C109794:pro-brain natriuretic peptide (1-76); D053495:Osteopontin; D020097:Natriuretic Peptide, Brain