title: Deep brain stimulation of the ventral striatum/anterior limb of the internal capsule in thalamic pain syndrome: study protocol for a pilot randomized controlled trial.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Chronic neuropathic pain in thalamic pain syndrome remains intractable. Its poor response is ascribed to destruction of the integrated neuromatrix in experience of pain. Deep brain stimulation is a promising technique to modulate activity of implicated structures. However, traditional approaches targeting sensori-motor substrates have failed to affect disability. The offending lesion in thalamic pain syndrome that almost invariably destroys sensory pain pathways may render these classical approaches ineffective. Instead, we hypothesize that targeting structures representing emotion and affective behavior-ventral striatum/anterior limb of the internal capsule, may alleviate disability.
  
  
  METHODS
  We present the design of our phase I randomized, double-blinded, sham-controlled, crossover trial that examines safety, feasibility and efficacy of our proposed approach. In our ongoing trial, we intend to enroll ten patients with thalamic pain syndrome. Following implantation, patients are randomized to receive active deep brain stimulation to the ventral striatum/anterior limb of the internal capsule or sham for 3 months, after which they are crossed over. The primary endpoint is Pain Disability Index. Other outcomes include visual analog scale, depression and anxiety inventories, quality of life, and functional neuroimaging.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Designing trials of deep brain stimulation for pain is challenging owing to the ethical-scientific dilemma of introducing a control arm, complicated blinding, heterogeneous etiologies, patient expectations, and inadequate assessment of disability. The quality of evidence in the field is classified as level III (poor) because it mainly includes a multitude of uncontrolled case series reporting variable outcomes, with little regard for the placebo effect related to implantation. Without valid data on efficacy, use of deep brain stimulation for pain remains "off label". We present our trial design to discuss feasibility of conducting sham-controlled phase I studies that may represent significant refinement for the field. Double-blinding would reduce influence of patient expectations and therapeutic confusion amongst investigators. With a cross-over approach, the dilemma regarding including a control group can be mitigated. Use of homogeneous etiology, measurement of disability, depression and quality of life, besides pain perception, all represent strategies to evaluate efficacy rigorously. Functional imaging would serve to define mechanisms underlying observed effects and may help optimize future targeting.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  Clinicaltrials.gov NCT01072656.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation and Center for Neurological Restoration, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, ND20, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA. plowe2@ccf.org
authors.forename: Ela B
authors.initials: EB
authors.lastname: Plow
authors.forename: Donald A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Malone
authors.forename: Andre
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Machado
mesh_terms: D001479:Basal Ganglia / Q000503:physiopathology*; D002985:Clinical Protocols; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D046690:Deep Brain Stimulation / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000379:methods*; D004185:Disability Evaluation; D004311:Double-Blind Method; D005240:Feasibility Studies; D059907:Functional Neuroimaging / Q000379:methods; D006801:Humans; D020772:Internal Capsule / Q000503:physiopathology*; D009437:Neuralgia / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy*; D009820:Ohio; D010147:Pain Measurement; D010865:Pilot Projects; D011237:Predictive Value of Tests; D011788:Quality of Life; D012107:Research Design; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013577:Syndrome; D013786:Thalamic Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy*; D013997:Time Factors; D016896:Treatment Outcome
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