title: Effect of emulsifier type and concentration, aqueous phase volume and wax ratio on physical, material and mechanical properties of water in oil lipsticks.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Water-in-oil emulsions in lipsticks could have the potential to improve moisturizing properties and deliver hydrophilic molecules to the lips. The aims of this work were (i) to investigate the effect of emulsifier type (polymer vs. monomer, and saturated vs. unsaturated chain) and concentration on droplet size and (ii) to investigate the effect of wax ratio (carnauba wax, microcrystalline wax, paraffin wax and performalene) and aqueous phase volume on material properties (Young's modulus, point of fracture, elastic modulus and viscous modulus).
  
  
  METHODS
  Emulsion formation was achieved using a high shear mixer.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Results showed that the saturated nature of the emulsifier had very little effect on droplet size, neither did the use of an emulsifier with a larger head group (droplet size ~18-25 μm). Polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) resulted in emulsions with the smallest droplets (~3-5 μm), as expected from previous studies that show that it produces a thick elastic interface. The results also showed that both Young's modulus and point of fracture increase with increasing percentage of carnauba wax (following a power law dependency of 3), but decrease with increasing percentage of microcrystalline wax, suggesting that the carnauba wax is included in the overall wax network formed by the saturated components, whereas the microcrystalline wax forms irregular crystals that disrupt the overall wax crystal network. Young's modulus, elastic modulus and viscous modulus all decrease with increasing aqueous phase volume in the emulsions, although the slope of the decrease in elastic and viscous moduli is dependent on the addition of solid wax, as a result of strengthening the network.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This work suggests the potential use for emulsions in lipstick applications, particularly when PGPR is used as an emulsifier, and with the addition of solid wax, as it increases network strength.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Formulation Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Beri
authors.forename: J E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Norton
authors.forename: I T
authors.initials: IT
authors.lastname: Norton
mesh_terms: D002152:Calorimetry, Differential Scanning; D003358:Cosmetics / Q000737:chemistry*; D045703:Emulsifying Agents / Q000737:chemistry; D004655:Emulsions / Q000737:chemistry*; D006801:Humans; D009682:Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy; D008855:Microscopy, Electron, Scanning; D012212:Rheology; D014867:Water / Q000737:chemistry*; D014885:Waxes / Q000737:chemistry
chemical_list: D003358:Cosmetics; D045703:Emulsifying Agents; D004655:Emulsions; D014885:Waxes; D014867:Water