title: The non-enzymatic reduction of azo dyes by flavin and nicotinamide cofactors under varying conditions.
abstract: Azo dyes are ubiquitous in products and often become environmental pollutants due to their anthropogenic nature. Azoreductases are enzymes which are present within many bacteria and are capable of breaking down the azo dyes via reduction of the azo bond. Often, though, carcinogenic aromatic amines are formed as metabolites and are of concern to humans. Azoreductases function via an oxidation-reduction reaction and require cofactors (a nicotinamide cofactor and sometimes a flavin cofactor) to perform their function. Non-enzymatic reduction of azo dyes in the absence of an azoreductase enzyme has been suggested in previous studies, but has never been studied in detail in terms of varying cofactor combinations, different oxygen states or pHs, nor has the enzymatic reduction been compared to azoreduction in terms of dye reduction or metabolites produced, which was the aim of this study. Reduction of azo dyes by different cofactor combinations was found to occur under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions and under physiologically-relevant pHs to produce the same metabolites as an azoreductase. Our results show that, in some cases, the non-enzymatic reduction by the cofactors was found to be equal to that seen with the azoreductase, suggesting that all dye reduction in these cases is due to the cofactors themselves. This study details the importance of the use of a cofactor-only control when studying azoreductase enzymes.
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, 307 Life Science East, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA. Electronic address: jessica.morrison@okstate.edu.
authors.forename: Jessica M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Morrison
authors.forename: Gilbert H
authors.initials: GH
authors.lastname: John
mesh_terms: D000332:Aerobiosis; D000693:Anaerobiosis; D001391:Azo Compounds / Q000378:metabolism*; D004396:Coloring Agents / Q000378:metabolism*; D004138:Dinitrocresols / Q000378:metabolism*; D006863:Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; D009247:NADH, NADPH Oxidoreductases / Q000378:metabolism; D009536:Niacinamide / Q000378:metabolism*; D009601:Nitroreductases; D010084:Oxidation-Reduction
chemical_list: D001391:Azo Compounds; D004396:Coloring Agents; D004138:Dinitrocresols; C024132:4,6-dinitro-o-cresol; D009536:Niacinamide; D009247:NADH, NADPH Oxidoreductases; D009601:Nitroreductases; C021106:azoreductase
keywords: Azo dyes; Azoreductase; FMN; NADH; Non-enzymatic reduction