Growth habit of the late Paleozoic rhizomorphic tree-lycopsid family Diaphorodendraceae: phylogenetic, evolutionary, and paleoecological significance.
OBJECTIVE
Rhizomorphic lycopsids evolved the tree habit independently of all other land plants. Newly discovered specimens allow radical revision of our understanding of the growth architectures of the extinct Paleozoic sister-genera Synchysidendron and Diaphorodendron.


METHODS
Detailed descriptions of six remarkable adpression specimens from the Pennsylvanian of the USA and three casts from the late Mississippian of Scotland are used to revise and reanalyze a previously published morphological cladistic matrix and to reinterpret their remarkable growth forms.


RESULTS
Contrary to previous assertions, Synchysidendron resembled Diaphorodendron in having a distinct and relatively complex growth habit that emphasized serially homologous, closely spaced, deciduous lateral branches at the expense of reduced monocarpic crown branches. Lateral branches originated through several strongly anisotomous dichotomies before producing during extended periods large numbers of Achlamydocarpon strobili. The comparatively large diameter of abscission scars remaining on the main trunk and the emergence of branches above the horizontal plane suggest that the lateral branch systems were robust. Lateral branches were borne in two opposite rows on the main trunk and continued upward into an isotomously branched, determinate crown; their striking distichous arrangement caused preferred orientation of fallen trunks on bedding planes.


CONCLUSIONS
This discovery identifies the plagiotropic growth habit, dominated by serial lateral branches, as ubiquitous in the Diaphorodendraceae and also as unequivocally primitive within Isoetales s.l., a conclusion supported by both the revised morphological cladistic analysis and relative first appearances of taxa in the fossil record. Previously assumed complete homology between crown branching in Lepidodendraceae and that of all earlier-divergent genera requires reassessment. Saltational phenotypic transitions via modification of key developmental switches remains the most credible explanation for architectural evolution in the group. The resulting architecture allowed Diaphorodendraceae to co-dominate disturbed, clastic, equatorial wetlands from the Asbian to the Early Permian.
Department of Paleobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560, USA.
William A
WA
Dimichele
Scott D
SD
Elrick
Richard M
RM
Bateman
D005075:Biological Evolution; D016000:Cluster Analysis; D053476:Extinction, Biological; D005580:Fossils; D010163:Paleontology; D010802:Phylogeny; D018547:Plant Stems / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D010944:Plants / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D012606:Scotland; D014481:United States
Diaphorodendron; Isoetales s.l.; Pennsylvanian; Scotland; Synchysidendron; USA; arborescent lycopsids; evolutionary-developmental change; growth architecture; lateral branching; lycophyte; paedomorphosis; saltation