title: Plasmodium vivax malaria vaccines: why are we where we are?
abstract: Malaria is one of the few diseases in which morbidity is still measured in hundreds of millions of cases every year. Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum are responsible for nearly all the malaria cases in the world and despite difficulties in obtaining an exact number, estimates indicate an astonishing 349-552 million clinical cases of malaria due to P. falciparum in 2007 and between 132-391 million clinical episodes due to P. vivax in 2009. It is becoming evident that eradication of malaria will be an arduous task and P. vivax will be one of the most difficult species to eliminate and perhaps become the last standing malaria parasite. Indeed, in countries that succeed in decreasing the disease burden, nearly all the remaining malaria cases are caused by P. vivax. Such resilience is mainly due to the sophisticated mechanism that the parasite has evolved to remain dormant for months or years forming hypnozoites, a small structure in the liver that will be a major hurdle in the efforts toward malaria eradication. Furthermore, while clinical trials of vaccines against P. falciparum are making fast progress, a very different picture is seen with P. vivax, where only few candidates are currently active in clinical trials.
authors: The Jenner Institute; University of Oxford; Oxford, UK.
authors: Arturo
authors: A
authors: Reyes-Sandoval
authors: The Jenner Institute; University of Oxford; Oxford, UK; Dermatology; University Hospital Zurich; Zurich, Switzerland.
authors: Martin F
authors: MF
authors: Bachmann
mesh_terms: D035843:Biomedical Research / Q000639:trends; D002986:Clinical Trials as Topic; D006801:Humans; D017780:Malaria Vaccines / Q000276:immunology* / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D016780:Malaria, Vivax / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000276:immunology / Q000517:prevention & control*; D010966:Plasmodium vivax / Q000276:immunology*
chemical_list: D017780:Malaria Vaccines
keywords: Plasmodium vivax; clinical trials; human trials; malaria; vaccine
references: N Engl J Med. 2012 Dec 13;367(24):2284-95
references: 23136909
references: Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1989 May;40(5):455-64
references: 2658634
references: Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005 Nov;73(5 Suppl):10-5
references: 16291761
references: Trends Parasitol. 2008 Jan;24(1):29-34
references: 18023618
references: Trends Parasitol. 2013 Jun;29(6):286-94
references: 23623759
references: J Exp Med. 1912 Oct 1;16(4):567-79
references: 19867597
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Oct 25;102(43):15523-8
references: 16227436
references: Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011 Nov;17(11):1600-7
references: 21883665
references: Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007 Dec;77(6 Suppl):79-87
references: 18165478
references: J Exp Med. 1981 Oct 1;154(4):1225-36
references: 7026723
references: Science. 1993 Nov 26;262(5138):1448-51
references: 8248784
references: PLoS Med. 2008 Jun 17;5(6):e128
references: 18563962
references: Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2011 Oct 12;366(1579):2806-14
references: 21893544
references: Infect Immun. 2010 Jan;78(1):145-53
references: 19858306
references: J Infect Dis. 2012 Mar 1;205(5):772-81
references: 22275401
references: Infect Immun. 2011 Sep;79(9):3492-500
references: 21690242
references: PLoS One. 2012;7(2):e31472
references: 22328935
references: Nature. 1967 Oct 14;216(5111):160-2
references: 6057225
references: Malar J. 2008 Dec 11;7 Suppl 1:S9
references: 19091043
references: Vaccine. 2005 May 2;23(24):3131-8
references: 15837212
references: Vaccine. 2012 May 9;30(22):3311-9
references: 22425788
references: Vaccine. 2010 Dec 16;29(2):256-65
references: 21029806
references: Malar J. 2011 Dec 20;10:378
references: 22185615
references: Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003 Nov;69(5):536-41
references: 14695092
references: Infect Immun. 2007 Mar;75(3):1177-85
references: 17158893
references: Acta Trop. 2009 Mar;109(3):176-80
references: 18950597
references: Vaccine. 2009 Feb 25;27(9):1448-53
references: 19138714
references: EMBO J. 2001 Aug 1;20(15):3975-83
references: 11483501
references: J Exp Med. 1980 Jun 1;151(6):1504-13
references: 6991628
references: PLoS Med. 2010 Jun 15;7(6):e1000290
references: 20563310
references: Cell. 1992 Jun 26;69(7):1213-26
references: 1617731
references: Infect Immun. 2000 Dec;68(12):6618-23
references: 11083773
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 Mar 30;107(13):5967-71
references: 20231434
references: PLoS Med. 2011 Jan 25;8(1):e1000398
references: 21311586
references: Hum Vaccin. 2010 Jan;6(1):3-11
references: 19946205
references: J Immunol. 2011 Aug 1;187(3):1347-57
references: 21715686
references: PLoS One. 2008 Jul 09;3(7):e2636
references: 18612426
references: Exp Parasitol. 1992 Nov;75(3):303-7
references: 1426132
references: Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2009 Oct;22(5):430-5
references: 19571748
references: PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2010 Aug 03;4(8):e774
references: 20689816
references: Adv Immunol. 2012;114:107-49
references: 22449780
references: J Biol Chem. 2002 Dec 6;277(49):47613-8
references: 12244064
references: J Exp Med. 1987 Apr 1;165(4):1160-71
references: 3549959
references: Lancet. 2010 Nov 6;376(9752):1566-78
references: 21035842
references: Science. 2007 Dec 7;318(5856):1544-5
references: 18063766
references: Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2011 Aug;106 Suppl 1:179-92
references: 21881773
references: Int J Parasitol. 2004 Dec;34(13-14):1535-46
references: 15582530
references: Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1991 Dec;45(6):695-701
references: 1763796
references: Nat Rev Immunol. 2010 Nov;10(11):787-96
references: 20948547
references: Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005 Nov;73(5 Suppl):3-9
references: 16291760
references: PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2012;6(9):e1814
references: 22970336
references: Eur J Immunol. 2008 Mar;38(3):732-41
references: 18266272
references: Adv Parasitol. 2013;81:1-26
references: 23384620