title: The impact of social exclusion vs. inclusion on subjective and hormonal reactions in females and males.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The experience of social exclusion represents an extremely aversive and threatening situation in daily life. The present study examined the impact of social exclusion compared to inclusion on steroid hormone concentrations as well as on subjective affect ratings.
  
  
  METHODS
  Eighty subjects (40 females) participated in two independent behavioral experiments. They engaged in a computerized ball tossing game in which they ostensibly played with two other players who deliberately excluded or included them, respectively. Hormone samples as well as mood ratings were taken before and after the game.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Social exclusion led to a decrease in positive mood ratings and increased anger ratings. In contrast, social inclusion did not affect positive mood ratings, but decreased sadness ratings. Both conditions did not affect cortisol levels. Testosterone significantly decreased after being excluded in both genders, and increased after inclusion, but only in males. Interestingly, progesterone showed an increase after both conditions only in females.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results suggest that social exclusion does not trigger a classical stress response but gender-specific changes in sex hormone levels. The testosterone decrease after being excluded in both genders, as well as the increase after inclusion in males can be interpreted within the framework of the biosocial status hypothesis. The progesterone increase might reflect a generalized affiliative response during social interaction in females.
authors: Department of Health, Development and Psychological Intervention, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; Social, Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Unit, Department of Basic Psychological Research and Research Methods, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria. Electronic address: eva-maria.seidel@univie.ac.at.
authors: E M
authors: EM
authors: Seidel
authors: G
authors: G
authors: Silani
authors: H
authors: H
authors: Metzler
authors: H
authors: H
authors: Thaler
authors: C
authors: C
authors: Lamm
authors: R C
authors: RC
authors: Gur
authors: I
authors: I
authors: Kryspin-Exner
authors: U
authors: U
authors: Habel
authors: B
authors: B
authors: Derntl
mesh_terms: D000339:Affect; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D000786:Anger / Q000502:physiology; D003627:Data Interpretation, Statistical; D004644:Emotions / Q000502:physiology; D005260:Female; D006728:Hormones / Q000378:metabolism*; D006801:Humans; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000032:analysis; D007398:Interpersonal Relations; D008297:Male; D011374:Progesterone / Q000097:blood; D012929:Psychological Distance; D012463:Saliva / Q000737:chemistry; D012727:Sex Characteristics; D013739:Testosterone / Q000097:blood; D018910:Video Games / Q000523:psychology; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D006728:Hormones; D013739:Testosterone; D011374:Progesterone; D006854:Hydrocortisone
keywords: Cortisol; Cyberball; Gender; Progesterone; Social exclusion; Testosterone
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