title: Multiple mycotoxin exposure determined by urinary biomarkers in rural subsistence farmers in the former Transkei, South Africa.
abstract: Subsistence farmers are exposed to a range of mycotoxins. This study applied novel urinary multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS methods to determine multiple exposure biomarkers in the high oesophageal cancer region, Transkei, South Africa. Fifty-three female participants donated part of their maize-based evening meal and first void morning urine, which was analysed both with sample clean-up (single and multi-biomarker) and by a 'dilute-and-shoot' multi-biomarker method. Results were corrected for recovery with LOD for not detected. A single biomarker method detected fumonisin B1 (FB1) (87% incidence; mean±standard deviation 0.342±0.466 ng/mg creatinine) and deoxynivalenol (100%; mean 20.4±49.4 ng/mg creatinine) after hydrolysis with β-glucuronidase. The multi-biomarker 'dilute-and-shoot' method indicated deoxynivalenol-15-glucuronide was predominantly present. A multi-biomarker method with β-glucuronidase and immunoaffinity clean-up determined zearalenone (100%; 0.529±1.60 ng/mg creatinine), FB1 (96%; 1.52±2.17 ng/mg creatinine), α-zearalenol (92%; 0.614±1.91 ng/mg creatinine), deoxynivalenol (87%; 11.3±27.1 ng/mg creatinine), β-zearalenol (75%; 0.702±2.95 ng/mg creatinine) and ochratoxin A (98%; 0.041±0.086 ng/mg creatinine). These demonstrate the value of multi-biomarker methods in measuring exposures in populations exposed to multiple mycotoxins. This is the first finding of urinary deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, their conjugates, ochratoxin A and zearalenols in Transkei.
authors.affiliation: PROMEC Unit, Medical Research Council, PO Box 19070, Tygerberg 7505, South Africa. Electronic address: gordon.shephard@mrc.ac.za.
authors.forename: Gordon S
authors.initials: GS
authors.lastname: Shephard
authors.forename: Hester-Mari
authors.initials: HM
authors.lastname: Burger
authors.forename: Lucia
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Gambacorta
authors.forename: Yun Yun
authors.initials: YY
authors.lastname: Gong
authors.forename: Rudolf
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Krska
authors.forename: John P
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Rheeder
authors.forename: Michele
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Solfrizzo
authors.forename: Chou
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Srey
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Sulyok
authors.forename: Angelo
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Visconti
authors.forename: Benedikt
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Warth
authors.forename: Liana
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: van der Westhuizen
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000652:urine*; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000032:analysis*; D000067565:Farmers; D005260:Female; D005506:Food Contamination / Q000032:analysis*; D037341:Fumonisins / Q000652:urine; D006801:Humans; D008875:Middle Aged; D009183:Mycotoxins / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D009793:Ochratoxins / Q000652:urine; D012424:Rural Population; D013019:South Africa; D053719:Tandem Mass Spectrometry / Q000379:methods; D014255:Trichothecenes / Q000652:urine; D055815:Young Adult; D003313:Zea mays; D015025:Zearalenone / Q000652:urine; D015029:Zeranol / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000652:urine
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D037341:Fumonisins; D009183:Mycotoxins; D009793:Ochratoxins; D014255:Trichothecenes; C029659:zearalenol; C025589:ochratoxin A; C056933:fumonisin B1; D015025:Zearalenone; D015029:Zeranol; C007262:deoxynivalenol
keywords: AFB(1), AFM(1); B(2); Biomarker; DOM-1; DON; Deoxynivalenol; Exposure; FB(1), FB(2), fumonisin B(1); Fumonisin; IAC; JECFA; Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives; LC–MS/MS; LOD; LOQ; Mycotoxin; NIV; OTA; PBS; PDI; PMTDI; UPLC; ZEA; ZEA-GlcA; Zearalenone; aflatoxin B(1), M(1); de-epoxydeoxynivalenol; deoxynivalenol, DON-GlcA, DON-glucuronide; immunoaffinity column; limit of detection; limit of quantification; liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry; nivalenol; ochratoxin A; phosphate buffered saline; probable daily intake; provisional maximum tolerable daily intake; ultra-performance liquid chromatograph(y); zearalenone; zearalenone-glucuronide; α-, β-ZOL; α-, β-zearalenol