title: Over-the-counter suboptimal dispensing of antibiotics in Uganda.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Overuse and misuse of antibiotics is a serious global problem. While resistance to older antibiotics is increasing, development of newer molecules has stalled. Resistance to the existing antibiotics that is largely driven by their high-volume use is a global public health problem. Uganda is one of the countries where prescription-only drugs, including antibiotics, can be obtained over the counter. We determined the rate of antibiotic dispensing and use in Uganda.
  
  
  METHODS
  The study utilized a descriptive cross-sectional study design to determine the number of antibiotic "prescribed" daily doses per 1,000 clients. Data were collected from one health center II, eight general/district hospitals, one national referral hospital, and 62 registered community pharmacies. From each study site, data were collected for five consecutive days over the months of November 2011 to January 2012.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The overall antibiotic issue rate was 43.2%. Amoxicillin, metronidazole, ciprofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, cloxacillin, and ampicillin, belonging to the WHO anatomical therapeutic chemical classifications of penicillin with extended spectra, imidazole derivatives, fluoroquinolones, and sulfonamide-trimethoprim combinations, constituted 70% of the issued antibiotics. About 41% of antibiotics were issued over the counter. At community pharmacies, where 30% of antibiotic dispensing occurred, the number of prescribed daily doses/1,000 antibiotic clients was 4,169 compared to 6,220, 7,350 and 7,500 at general/district hospitals, the national referral hospital, and the health center, respectively.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In Uganda, at least four in every ten individuals that visit a health-care facility are treated with an antibiotic. Antibiotics are largely given as over-the-counter drugs at community pharmacies. The number of antibiotic prescribed daily doses/1,000 antibiotic clients does not significantly differ between categories of health-care facilities except at community pharmacies, where lower doses are dispensed compared to other health-care facilities.
authors.affiliation: Center for Operational Research Africa, Kampala, Uganda ; Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Uganda.
authors.forename: Jackson K
authors.initials: JK
authors.lastname: Mukonzo
authors.forename: Proscovia M
authors.initials: PM
authors.lastname: Namuwenge
authors.forename: Gildo
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Okure
authors.forename: Benjamin
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Mwesige
authors.forename: Olivia K
authors.initials: OK
authors.lastname: Namusisi
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Mukanga
keywords: Uganda; antibiotic; over-the-counter dispensing; suboptimal dosing