title: Reduced risk estimations after remediation of lead (Pb) in drinking water at two US school districts.
abstract: The risk of students to develop elevated blood lead from drinking water consumption at schools was assessed, which is a different approach from predictions of geometric mean blood lead levels. Measured water lead levels (WLLs) from 63 elementary schools in Seattle and 601 elementary schools in Los Angeles were acquired before and after voluntary remediation of water lead contamination problems. Combined exposures to measured school WLLs (first-draw and flushed, 50% of water consumption) and home WLLs (50% of water consumption) were used as inputs to the Integrated Exposure Uptake Biokinetic (IEUBK) model for each school. In Seattle an average 11.2% of students were predicted to exceed a blood lead threshold of 5 μg/dL across 63 schools pre-remediation, but predicted risks at individual schools varied (7% risk of exceedance at a "low exposure school", 11% risk at a "typical exposure school", and 31% risk at a "high exposure school"). Addition of water filters and removal of lead plumbing lowered school WLL inputs to the model, and reduced the predicted risk output to 4.8% on average for Seattle elementary students across all 63 schools. The remnant post-remediation risk was attributable to other assumed background lead sources in the model (air, soil, dust, diet and home WLLs), with school WLLs practically eliminated as a health threat. Los Angeles schools instead instituted a flushing program which was assumed to eliminate first-draw WLLs as inputs to the model. With assumed benefits of remedial flushing, the predicted average risk of students to exceed a BLL threshold of 5 μg/dL dropped from 8.6% to 6.0% across 601 schools. In an era with increasingly stringent public health goals (e.g., reduction of blood lead safety threshold from 10 to 5 μg/dL), quantifiable health benefits to students were predicted after water lead remediation at two large US school systems.
authors.affiliation: Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, 418 Durham Hall, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA. Electronic address: striant@vt.edu.
authors.forename: Simoni
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Triantafyllidou
authors.forename: Trung
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Le
authors.forename: Daniel
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Gallagher
authors.forename: Marc
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Edwards
mesh_terms: D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D060766:Drinking Water / Q000032:analysis*; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D052918:Environmental Restoration and Remediation; D006801:Humans; D007854:Lead / Q000032:analysis*; D015141:Los Angeles; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012574:Schools; D014861:Washington; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis*
chemical_list: D060766:Drinking Water; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D007854:Lead
keywords: Blood lead; First-draw; Flushed water; Integrated Exposure Uptake Biokinetic (IEUBK) model; Student exposure; Variability