title: Collection and trade of wild-harvested orchids in Nepal.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Wild orchids are illegally harvested and traded in Nepal for use in local traditional medicine, horticulture, and international trade. This study aims to: 1) identify the diversity of species of wild orchids in trade in Nepal; 2) study the chain of commercialization from collector to client and/or export; 3) map traditional knowledge and medicinal use of orchids; and 4) integrate the collected data to propose a more sustainable approach to orchid conservation in Nepal.
  
  
  METHODS
  Trade, species diversity, and traditional use of wild-harvested orchids were documented during field surveys of markets and through interviews. Trade volumes and approximate income were estimated based on surveys and current market prices. Orchid material samples were identified to species level using a combination of morphology and DNA barcoding.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Orchid trade is a long tradition, and illegal export to China, India and Hong Kong is rife. Estimates show that 9.4 tons of wild orchids were illegally traded from the study sites during 2008/2009. A total of 60 species of wild orchids were reported to be used in traditional medicinal practices to cure at least 38 different ailments, including energizers, aphrodisiacs and treatments of burnt skin, fractured or dislocated bones, headaches, fever and wounds. DNA barcoding successfully identified orchid material to species level that remained sterile after culturing.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Collection of wild orchids was found to be widespread in Nepal, but illegal trade is threatening many species in the wild. Establishment of small-scale sustainable orchid breeding enterprises could be a valuable alternative for the production of medicinal orchids for local communities. Critically endangered species should be placed on CITES Appendix I to provide extra protection to those species. DNA barcoding is an effective method for species identification and monitoring of illegal cross-border trade.
authors.affiliation: Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Sylviusweg 72, P,O, Box 9517, Leiden, The Netherlands. barbara.gravendeel@naturalis.nl.
authors.forename: Abishkar
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Subedi
authors.forename: Bimal
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Kunwar
authors.forename: Young
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Choi
authors.forename: Yuntao
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Dai
authors.forename: Tinde
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: van Andel
authors.forename: Ram P
authors.initials: RP
authors.lastname: Chaudhary
authors.forename: Hugo J
authors.initials: HJ
authors.lastname: de Boer
authors.forename: Barbara
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Gravendeel
mesh_terms: D058893:DNA Barcoding, Taxonomic; D008519:Medicine, Traditional; D009390:Nepal; D029595:Orchidaceae / Q000235:genetics / Q000254:growth & development; D010946:Plants, Medicinal