title: Sexuality generates diversity in the aflatoxin gene cluster: evidence on a global scale.
abstract: Aflatoxins are produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus in oil-rich seed and grain crops and are a serious problem in agriculture, with aflatoxin B₁ being the most carcinogenic natural compound known. Sexual reproduction in these species occurs between individuals belonging to different vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs). We examined natural genetic variation in 758 isolates of A. flavus, A. parasiticus and A. minisclerotigenes sampled from single peanut fields in the United States (Georgia), Africa (Benin), Argentina (Córdoba), Australia (Queensland) and India (Karnataka). Analysis of DNA sequence variation across multiple intergenic regions in the aflatoxin gene clusters of A. flavus, A. parasiticus and A. minisclerotigenes revealed significant linkage disequilibrium (LD) organized into distinct blocks that are conserved across different localities, suggesting that genetic recombination is nonrandom and a global occurrence. To assess the contributions of asexual and sexual reproduction to fixation and maintenance of toxin chemotype diversity in populations from each locality/species, we tested the null hypothesis of an equal number of MAT1-1 and MAT1-2 mating-type individuals, which is indicative of a sexually recombining population. All samples were clone-corrected using multi-locus sequence typing which associates closely with VCG. For both A. flavus and A. parasiticus, when the proportions of MAT1-1 and MAT1-2 were significantly different, there was more extensive LD in the aflatoxin cluster and populations were fixed for specific toxin chemotype classes, either the non-aflatoxigenic class in A. flavus or the B₁-dominant and G₁-dominant classes in A. parasiticus. A mating type ratio close to 1∶1 in A. flavus, A. parasiticus and A. minisclerotigenes was associated with higher recombination rates in the aflatoxin cluster and less pronounced chemotype differences in populations. This work shows that the reproductive nature of the population (more sexual versus more asexual) is predictive of aflatoxin chemotype diversity in these agriculturally important fungi.
authors.affiliation: Southern Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America.
authors.forename: Geromy G
authors.initials: GG
authors.lastname: Moore
authors.forename: Jacalyn L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Elliott
authors.forename: Rakhi
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Singh
authors.forename: Bruce W
authors.initials: BW
authors.lastname: Horn
authors.forename: Joe W
authors.initials: JW
authors.lastname: Dorner
authors.forename: Eric A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Stone
authors.forename: Sofia N
authors.initials: SN
authors.lastname: Chulze
authors.forename: German G
authors.initials: GG
authors.lastname: Barros
authors.forename: Manjunath K
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Naik
authors.forename: Graeme C
authors.initials: GC
authors.lastname: Wright
authors.forename: Kerstin
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Hell
authors.forename: Ignazio
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Carbone
mesh_terms: D000348:Aflatoxins / Q000096:biosynthesis* / Q000235:genetics; D001231:Aspergillus flavus / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D005656:Fungal Proteins / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D005800:Genes, Fungal / Q000502:physiology*; D005810:Multigene Family / Q000502:physiology*; D012097:Repressor Proteins / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D013045:Species Specificity
chemical_list: D000348:Aflatoxins; D005656:Fungal Proteins; D012097:Repressor Proteins