title: The fungibility of time in claims of efficiency: the case of making transmission of prescriptions electronic in English general practice.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This paper presents a study of the effects of the implementation of the NHS Electronic Prescription Service (EPS) on time spent on repeat prescribing in English general practice. EPS is a new network service for the electronic transmission of primary care prescriptions, principally between GP practices and community pharmacies. This service is promoted on the basis of the importance of safe and timely supply of medicines, and the level of medicines use by many patients with treatable chronic conditions. The service is also based on presumptions of significant time-savings and efficiency gains for general practices and GPs. Our objective was to assess the time-related changes (including time savings) conditioned by digital transmission of prescriptions, specifically for repeat prescribing activity in primary care practices.
  
  
  METHODS
  As part of the official evaluation of EPS in the English NHS we undertook a qualitative research design with field studies in four of the first GP practices adopting EPS. This research was based on interviews with clinical and administrative staff, and non-participant observation of repeat prescribing related activities.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We found that the use of EPS reduced turnaround time and conditioned changes in the workflow, with time-savings found mainly in relation to administrative tasks. But the use of this technology also created additional tasks and shifted existing tasks and responsibilities. Thus elimination of tasks did not automatically correspond to potential staff savings or cost savings. Tasks that were eliminated and new tasks that were created were not equivalent in terms of time spent, quality of attention required, and roles involved.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The wider claim that healthcare information technology saves time and increases efficiency is often based on assumptions of the fungibility of time and people - i.e. that units of time added or saved on different steps of the workflow can be summed up as if they were all of the same kind, and thus reveal any net efficiency gain. But workflow time savings involve changes in the quality of tasks, redistribution of work and responsibility that mean that time can hardly be added or subtracted to obtain 'efficiency totals'.
authors.affiliation: Decision Making Research Group, School of Healthcare, University of Leeds, United Kingdom. Electronic address: v.lichtner@leeds.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Valentina
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Lichtner
authors.forename: Will
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Venters
authors.forename: Ralph
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Hibberd
authors.forename: Tony
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Cornford
authors.forename: Nick
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Barber
mesh_terms: D011307:Drug Prescriptions; D017598:Efficiency, Organizational; D055695:Electronic Prescribing; D058006:General Practice / Q000458:organization & administration*; D006801:Humans; D016347:Medical Records Systems, Computerized / Q000458:organization & administration / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D008508:Medication Errors / Q000517:prevention & control*; D013997:Time Factors; D006113:United Kingdom
keywords: Electronic prescribing; Electronic transmission of prescriptions; Evaluation studies as topic; General practice; Time