title: Linkages between human health and ocean health: a participatory climate change vulnerability assessment for marine mammal harvesters.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Indigenous residents of Alaska's Bering Strait Region depend, both culturally and nutritionally, on ice seal and walrus harvests. Currently, climate change and resultant increases in marine industrial development threaten these species and the cultures that depend on them.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To document: (a) local descriptions of the importance of marine mammal hunting; (b) traditional methods for determining if harvested marine mammals are safe to consume; and (c) marine mammal outcomes that would have adverse effects on community health, the perceived causes of these outcomes, strategies for preventing these outcomes and community adaptations to outcomes that cannot be mitigated.
  
  
  METHODS
  Semi-structured interviews and focus groups were conducted with 82 indigenous hunters and elders from the Bering Strait region. Standard qualitative analysis was conducted on interview transcripts, which were coded for both inductive and deductive codes. Responses describing marine mammal food safety and importance are presented using inductively generated categories. Responses describing negative marine mammal outcomes are presented in a vulnerability framework, which links human health outcomes to marine conditions.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Project participants perceived that shipping noise and pollution, as well as marine mammal food source depletion by industrial fishing, posed the greatest threats to marine mammal hunting traditions. Proposed adaptations primarily fell into 2 categories: (a) greater tribal influence over marine policy; and (b) documentation of traditional knowledge for local use. This paper presents 1 example of documenting traditional knowledge as an adaptation strategy: traditional methods for determining if marine mammal food is safe to eat.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Participant recommendations indicate that 1 strategy to promote rural Alaskan adaptation to climate change is to better incorporate local knowledge and values into decision-making processes. Participant interest in documenting traditional knowledge for local use also indicates that funding agencies could support climate change adaptation by awarding more grants for tribal research that advances local, rather than academic, use of traditional knowledge.
authors.affiliation: Natural Resources Division, Kawerak, Inc., Nome, Alaska AK-99762, USA. ss.pi@kawerak.org
authors.forename: Lily
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Gadamus
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D057231:Climate Change; D017144:Focus Groups; D059022:Food Safety; D005523:Food Supply; D006304:Health Status; D006801:Humans; D007407:Interviews as Topic; D004930:Inuit; D009792:Oceans and Seas; D046048:Seals, Earless; D014856:Walruses
keywords: adaptation; climate change; food security; indigenous; qualitative methods; vulnerability