title: Starting from scratch: Evolution of the lichen thallus in the basidiolichen Dictyonema (Agaricales: Hygrophoraceae).
abstract: Phylogenetic studies indicate that the basidiolichen genus Dictyonema s.lat., often thought to represent only a single genus with few species, includes several well-supported genus-level clades, all of which form associations with a unique lineage of obligately lichenized cyanobacteria (Rhizonema). In an attempt to elucidate the evolution and genus- and species-level diversification in Dictyonema s.lat., we generated 68 new sequences of the nuclear large subunit rDNA (nuLSU), the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), and the RNA polymerase II subunit (RPB2), for 29 species-level lineages representing all major clades of Dictyonema s.lat. and most of the species currently known. The multilocus phylogeny obtained via maximum likelihood and Bayesian approaches indicates the presence of five genus-level groups: a basal clade, Cyphellostereum, that is sister to the rest of the species, a paraphyletic grade representing Dictyonema s.str., and three clades representing the genera Acantholichen, Cora, and Corella. To determine the evolutionary transformations of the lichenized thallus in the group, ancestral character state reconstruction was done using six characters (lichenisation, thallus type, cortex type, hyphal sheath and haustorial type, photobiont morphology, and basidiocarp type). Our analysis indicates a progressive development of the lichenized thallus from loosely organized filamentous crusts with separate, cyphelloid basidiocarps in Cyphellostereum, to filamentous crusts with derived hyphal sheath and cyphelloid-stereoid basidiocarps partially incorporated into the lichen thallus in Dictyonema, to squamulose-foliose thalli with corticioid basidiocarps entirely supported by the lichen thallus in Cora. These results indicate a remarkable evolutionary integration of lichenized and reproductive tissues in Dictyonema s.lat., supporting the hypothesis that, at least in this case, lichenized thalli may have evolved from reproductive structures in their nonlichenized ancestors.
authors.affiliation: Department of Environmental Science and Policy, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive, Fairfax, VA 22030-4444, USA. Electronic address: mdalforn@gmu.edu.
authors.forename: Manuela
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Dal-Forno
authors.forename: James D
authors.initials: JD
authors.lastname: Lawrey
authors.forename: Masoumeh
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Sikaroodi
authors.forename: Smriti
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Bhattarai
authors.forename: Patrick M
authors.initials: PM
authors.lastname: Gillevet
authors.forename: Marcelo
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Sulzbacher
authors.forename: Robert
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Lücking
mesh_terms: D000363:Agaricales / Q000145:classification* / Q000254:growth & development*; D058448:Biota; D016000:Cluster Analysis; D004271:DNA, Fungal / Q000737:chemistry / Q000235:genetics; D004275:DNA, Ribosomal / Q000737:chemistry / Q000235:genetics; D020459:Genes, rRNA; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D010802:Phylogeny; D012319:RNA Polymerase II / Q000235:genetics; D012331:RNA, Fungal / Q000235:genetics; D012335:RNA, Ribosomal / Q000235:genetics; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA
chemical_list: D004271:DNA, Fungal; D004275:DNA, Ribosomal; D012331:RNA, Fungal; D012335:RNA, Ribosomal; C065096:RNA, ribosomal, 26S; D012319:RNA Polymerase II
keywords: Basidiocarp; Basidiolichens; Cyanolichens; Mushrooms