title: Cooking methods and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma in high-risk areas of Iran.
abstract: Cooking methods have been implicated in the etiology of gastrointestinal cancers, reflecting exposure to potential carcinogens as results of cooking. We used a validated food frequency questionnaire and a pretested cooking method questionnaire in 3 groups: 40 esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) cases from a high-risk area in northeast of Iran, 40 healthy subjects from the same high-risk area, and 40 healthy subjects from a low-risk area in Southern Iran. We compared the frequency of boiling, grilling, and frying, and the frying score among these 3 groups. We also calculated "frying index" by multiplying the frequency of each fried food item by its frying score. Mean frying to boiling ratios were 18.2:1, 12.8:1, and 2.6:1 for cases, high-risk controls, and low-risk controls, respectively (P < 0.01). Reuse of cooking oil for frying was reported in 37.5% of the ESCC cases, 25% of high-risk controls, and 7.5% of low-risk controls (P < 0.001). Frying index was higher in the high-risk than in the low-risk controls (P < 0.001) and in cases than in the high-risk controls (P < 0.05) after adjusting for smoking, opium use, rural residence, education, and ethnicity. High-temperature cooking and frying may be associated with increased risk of ESCC in high-risk areas.
authors.affiliation: a Digestive Disease Research Center, Shariati Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences , Tehran , Iran.
authors.forename: Roya
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Hakami
authors.forename: Arash
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Etemadi
authors.forename: Farin
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Kamangar
authors.forename: Akram
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Pourshams
authors.forename: Javad
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Mohtadinia
authors.forename: Mehdi Saberi
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Firoozi
authors.forename: Nicholas
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Birkett
authors.forename: Paolo
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Boffetta
authors.forename: Sanford M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Dawsey
authors.forename: Reza
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Malekzadeh
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D002294:Carcinoma, Squamous Cell / Q000209:etiology*; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D003296:Cooking / Q000379:methods*; D004938:Esophageal Neoplasms / Q000209:etiology*; D000077277:Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007492:Iran; D008297:Male; D008460:Meat; D008875:Middle Aged; D012044:Regression Analysis; D012307:Risk Factors; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014675:Vegetables
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