title: A review of vaccine approaches for West Nile virus.
abstract: The West Nile virus (WNC) first appeared in North America in 1999. The North American lineages of WNV were characterized by the presence of neuroinvasive and neurovirulent strains causing disease and death in humans, birds and horses. The 2012 WNV season in the United States saw a massive spike in the number of neuroinvasive cases and deaths similar to what was seen in the 2002-2003 season, according to the West Nile virus disease cases and deaths reported to the CDC by year and clinical presentation, 1999-2012, by ArboNET (Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). In addition, the establishment and recent spread of lineage II WNV virus strains into Western Europe and the presence of neurovirulent and neuroinvasive strains among them is a cause of major concern. This review discusses the advances in the development of vaccines and biologicals to combat human and veterinary West Nile disease.
authors.affiliation: Division of Biotechnology and Molecular Medicine, Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Skip Bertman Drive, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA. arun.iyer@boehringer-ingelheim.com
authors.forename: Arun V
authors.initials: AV
authors.lastname: Iyer
authors.forename: Konstantin G
authors.initials: KG
authors.lastname: Kousoulas
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001715:Bird Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000635:transmission; D001717:Birds; D003465:Culex / Q000821:virology; D006734:Horse Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000635:transmission; D006736:Horses; D006801:Humans; D014901:West Nile Fever / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control* / Q000635:transmission / Q000662:veterinary; D053060:West Nile Virus Vaccines; D014902:West Nile virus / Q000276:immunology
chemical_list: D053060:West Nile Virus Vaccines
references.citation: Rev Med Virol. 2006 Jul-Aug;16(4):209-24
references.pmid: 16906589
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Jul 15;45 Suppl 1:S56-60
references.pmid: 17582571
references.citation: Transpl Infect Dis. 2002 Sep;4(3):160-2
references.pmid: 12421462
references.citation: J Neurol Sci. 2002 Aug 15;200(1-2):63-6
references.pmid: 12127678
references.citation: Science. 2003 Oct 10;302(5643):248
references.pmid: 14551429
references.citation: Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012 Dec;18(12):E545-7
references.pmid: 23020657
references.citation: Vaccine. 2005 Jun 10;23(30):3915-24
references.pmid: 15917113
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2005 Jan 15;191(2):207-14
references.pmid: 15609230
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 2005 Feb;86(Pt 2):405-412
references.pmid: 15659760
references.citation: JAMA. 2003 Jan 22-29;289(4):414-5
references.pmid: 12549485
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):665-9
references.pmid: 11589171
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2003 Nov 1;37(9):e129-31
references.pmid: 14557983
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2006 Apr;12(4):618-23
references.pmid: 16704810
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct;5(5):643-50
references.pmid: 10511520
references.citation: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001 Dec;951:25-37
references.pmid: 11797781
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2007 Dec 15;196(12):1741-8
references.pmid: 18190253
references.citation: Avian Dis. 2007 Jun;51(2):573-7
references.pmid: 17626486
references.citation: J Virol. 2000 Feb;74(4):1742-51
references.pmid: 10644345
references.citation: Vaccine. 2005 Sep 30;23(41):4955-8
references.pmid: 16023273
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2002 May;8(5):528-31
references.pmid: 11996693
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jan-Feb;7(1):128-32
references.pmid: 11266303
references.citation: J Virol. 2002 Jun;76(11):5480-91
references.pmid: 11991976
references.citation: Vaccine. 2007 Jan 5;25(3):414-23
references.pmid: 16996661
references.citation: Virus Res. 2001 Nov 5;79(1-2):1-14
references.pmid: 11551641
references.citation: PLoS Pathog. 2007 Sep 14;3(9):1262-70
references.pmid: 17941708
references.citation: Annu Rev Microbiol. 2002;56:371-402
references.pmid: 12142476
references.citation: Vaccine. 2002 Jan 15;20(7-8):1004-18
references.pmid: 11803060
references.citation: Acta Virol. 2006;50(3):175-80
references.pmid: 17131936
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2011 Jan 1;203(1):75-84
references.pmid: 21148499
references.citation: Dermatology. 2005;211(4):348-50
references.pmid: 16286745
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Oct 15;45(8):1039-46
references.pmid: 17879923
references.citation: Cell Host Microbe. 2007 Apr 19;1(2):135-45
references.pmid: 18005691
references.citation: Zoonoses Public Health. 2009 Aug;56(6-7):338-56
references.pmid: 19486319
references.citation: Virology. 2006 Nov 10;355(1):44-51
references.pmid: 16904151
references.citation: Ann Inst Pasteur (Paris). 1970 Feb;118(2):239-47
references.pmid: 5461277
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2004 Apr;10(4):653-7
references.pmid: 15200855
references.citation: Vaccine. 2009 Feb 5;27(6):893-903
references.pmid: 19070640
references.citation: Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1954 Jan;3(1):19-50
references.pmid: 13114588
references.citation: Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2004 Mar;23(3):147-56
references.pmid: 14986160
references.citation: Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2004 Aug;4(8):1295-305
references.pmid: 15268663
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1937 May 31;65(6):787-800
references.pmid: 19870634
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2003 Jul;9(7):794-9
references.pmid: 12890319
references.citation: J Virol. 2013 Feb;87(4):1926-36
references.pmid: 23221549
references.citation: Vaccine. 2003 Jun 2;21(19-20):2516-22
references.pmid: 12744886
references.citation: J Virol. 2004 May;78(9):4761-75
references.pmid: 15078958
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2013 Apr;19(4):684-5
references.pmid: 23762912
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2005 Aug;11(8):1174-9
references.pmid: 16102303
references.citation: Avian Dis. 2003 Jul-Sep;47(3):750-2
references.pmid: 14562907
references.citation: J Virol. 2003 Dec;77(24):12941-9
references.pmid: 14645550
references.citation: Lancet Infect Dis. 2001 Aug;1(1):11-20
references.pmid: 11871403
references.citation: J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003 Jun;74(6):823-5
references.pmid: 12754368
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2003 Sep 15;37(6):e88-90
references.pmid: 12955669
references.citation: Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2002 Feb;66(2):115-6
references.pmid: 12135278
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Jun 15;44(12):1617-24
references.pmid: 17516407
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):675-8
references.pmid: 11585531
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2011 Oct;17(10):1868-72
references.pmid: 22000357
references.citation: JAMA. 2003 Jul 23;290(4):511-5
references.pmid: 12876094
references.citation: Ann Intern Med. 2004 Apr 6;140(7):545-53
references.pmid: 15068983
references.citation: Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 2004 Sep;27(5):343-55
references.pmid: 15225984
references.citation: Nature. 2005 Sep 29;437(7059):764-9
references.pmid: 16193056
references.citation: Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2011 Aug;11(8):1069-80
references.pmid: 21438693
references.citation: Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1974 Nov;23(6):1150-2
references.pmid: 4429184
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2005 Jul;11(7):1021-7
references.pmid: 16022775
references.citation: Science. 1999 Dec 17;286(5448):2333-7
references.pmid: 10600742
references.citation: Adv Virus Res. 2003;59:229-74
references.pmid: 14696331
references.citation: Virology. 1999 May 10;257(2):363-72
references.pmid: 10329547
references.citation: Immunotherapy. 2011 Feb;3(2):269-85
references.pmid: 21322763
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2002 Mar;8(3):245-51
references.pmid: 11927020
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2007 Jun 1;195(11):1607-17
references.pmid: 17471430
references.citation: MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2004 Aug 20;53(32):738-9
references.pmid: 15318158
references.citation: Nephrol News Issues. 2005 Nov;19(12):73-5
references.pmid: 16315548
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2006 Jan 20;281(3):1352-60
references.pmid: 16275649
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2002 Dec;8(12):1392-7
references.pmid: 12498653
references.citation: Annu Rev Microbiol. 1990;44:649-88
references.pmid: 2174669
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2005 Oct 15;41(8):1204-7
references.pmid: 16163642
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2005 Feb;11(2):225-31
references.pmid: 15752439
references.citation: Vaccine. 2005 May 16;23(26):3469-76
references.pmid: 15837370
references.citation: Parasite Immunol. 2006 Apr;28(4):131-41
references.pmid: 16542315
references.citation: MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002 Dec 20;51(50):1133-5
references.pmid: 12537288
references.citation: Vaccine. 2011 Jun 20;29(28):4608-12
references.pmid: 21549780
references.citation: Virology. 1987 Jan;156(1):127-37
references.pmid: 3811228
references.citation: Muscle Nerve. 2003 Sep;28(3):302-8
references.pmid: 12929189
references.citation: J Virol. 2004 Nov;78(22):12497-507
references.pmid: 15507637
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 1953 Nov-Dec;93(3):207-18
references.pmid: 13109233
references.citation: J Virol. 1999 Apr;73(4):3095-101
references.pmid: 10074160
references.citation: J Immunol. 2001 Nov 1;167(9):5273-7
references.pmid: 11673542
references.citation: J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2006 May-Jun;42(3):170-7
references.pmid: 16611928
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2005 Feb;11(2):306-9
references.pmid: 15752452
references.citation: Annu Rev Med. 2006;57:181-94
references.pmid: 16409144
references.citation: J Virol. 2001 May;75(9):4040-7
references.pmid: 11287553
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2004 Sep 10;279(37):38755-61
references.pmid: 15190071
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2012 May;18(5):792-800
references.pmid: 22516173
references.citation: Am J Vet Res. 2004 Nov;65(11):1459-62
references.pmid: 15566080
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2011 May 15;203(10):1396-404
references.pmid: 21398392
references.citation: Vet Ther. 2006 Fall;7(3):249-56
references.pmid: 17039448
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2003 Sep;9(9):1077-81
references.pmid: 14519243
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2009 Jun;15(6):877-84
references.pmid: 19523285
references.citation: Lancet. 1998 Sep 5;352(9130):767-71
references.pmid: 9737281
references.citation: Nat Rev Microbiol. 2005 Jan;3(1):13-22
references.pmid: 15608696
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 2006 Sep;60(3):286-300
references.pmid: 16983682
references.citation: MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002 Dec 20;51(50):1135-6
references.pmid: 12537289
references.citation: Can Fam Physician. 2005 Aug;51:1094-9
references.pmid: 16121831
references.citation: J Gene Med. 2006 Mar;8(3):265-74
references.pmid: 16308885
references.citation: Vet Microbiol. 2011 May 5;149(3-4):358-66
references.pmid: 21276665
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2004 Dec;10(12):2150-5
references.pmid: 15663852
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):759
references.pmid: 11585547
references.citation: Vet Ther. 2004 Winter;5(4):251-7
references.pmid: 15719324
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Apr 25;103(17):6694-9
references.pmid: 16617103
references.citation: J Virol. 1993 Mar;67(3):1672-5
references.pmid: 8437237
references.citation: J Virol. 2001 Aug;75(16):7290-304
references.pmid: 11462001
references.citation: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001 Dec;951:255-61
references.pmid: 11797782
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2011 May;17(5):903-6
references.pmid: 21529408
references.citation: Vaccine. 2007 Jul 26;25(30):5563-76
references.pmid: 17292514
references.citation: Vaccine. 2003 Nov 7;21(31):4514-8
references.pmid: 14575761
references.citation: Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2000 Apr;62(4):480-4
references.pmid: 11220763
references.citation: Vaccine. 2007 Apr 12;25(15):2913-8
references.pmid: 17067727
references.citation: Bull World Health Organ. 1984;62(6):879-82
references.pmid: 6099760
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):745-7
references.pmid: 11585543
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2000 Mar;30(3):413-8
references.pmid: 10722421
references.citation: Virology. 2003 Sep 15;314(1):190-5
references.pmid: 14517072
references.citation: Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2007 Jun;7(6):885-92
references.pmid: 17555373
references.citation: Hum Pathol. 2004 Feb;35(2):254-8
references.pmid: 14991545
references.citation: MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2004 Sep 17;53(36):842-4
references.pmid: 15371966
references.citation: Int J Parasitol. 2003 May;33(5-6):567-82
references.pmid: 12782056
references.citation: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2004 Oct 1;225(7):1084-9
references.pmid: 15515988
references.citation: J Immunol. 2007 Mar 1;178(5):2699-705
references.pmid: 17312111
references.citation: Virology. 2002 Jun 20;298(1):146-59
references.pmid: 12093182
references.citation: Pediatrics. 2004 May;113(5):1375-81
references.pmid: 15121956
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Sep 2;100(18):10460-4
references.pmid: 12917491
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):697-705
references.pmid: 11585535
references.citation: MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2003 Aug 15;52(32):769-72
references.pmid: 12917583
references.citation: Virus Genes. 2009 Apr;38(2):204-14
references.pmid: 19130199
references.citation: Viral Immunol. 2000;13(4):401-10
references.pmid: 11192286
references.citation: Nat Clin Pract Neurol. 2006 May;2(5):264-75
references.pmid: 16932563
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2004 Dec 15;190(12):2104-8
references.pmid: 15551208
references.citation: Ann Emerg Med. 2003 Feb;41(2):283
references.pmid: 12572565
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 2003 Jun;53(6):703-10
references.pmid: 12783415
references.citation: Nat Biotechnol. 2008 May;26(5):571-7
references.pmid: 18425125
references.citation: Virology. 2002 Jun 20;298(1):96-105
references.pmid: 12093177
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2003 Oct 15;188(8):1213-30
references.pmid: 14551893
references.citation: Cell. 2006 Feb 10;124(3):485-93
references.pmid: 16469696
references.citation: MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002 Nov 1;51(43):973-4
references.pmid: 12433022
references.citation: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001 Dec;951:117-26
references.pmid: 11797769
references.citation: Am J Epidemiol. 1971 Dec;94(6):596-607
references.pmid: 5133787
references.citation: Vet Pathol. 2000 May;37(3):208-24
references.pmid: 10810985
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 1988 Jan;69 ( Pt 1):1-21
references.pmid: 2826659
references.citation: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2004 Jul 15;225(2):267-74
references.pmid: 15323385
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2005 Aug;11(8):1167-73
references.pmid: 16102302
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2001 Oct 1;184(7):809-16
references.pmid: 11550123
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 2007 Mar;88(Pt 3):875-884
references.pmid: 17325360
references.citation: Virology. 2004 Dec 5;330(1):304-12
references.pmid: 15527855
references.citation: J Virol. 2000 Jun;74(12):5477-85
references.pmid: 10823852
references.citation: Dev Biol (Basel). 2003;114:221-7
references.pmid: 14677692
references.citation: Virus Res. 2007 Apr;125(1):69-78
references.pmid: 17241683
references.citation: Vaccine. 2006 Sep 29;24(40-41):6392-404
references.pmid: 16831498
references.citation: Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011 Aug;17(8):1176-80
references.pmid: 21781205
references.citation: J Neurol Sci. 2005 Sep 15;236(1-2):73-80
references.pmid: 15967468
references.citation: Vaccine. 1999 Apr 9;17(15-16):1869-82
references.pmid: 10217584
references.citation: Euro Surveill. 2011 Oct 27;16(43):
references.pmid: 22085600
references.citation: Vaccine. 2008 Jan 10;26(2):153-7
references.pmid: 18069096
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2003 Jul;9(7):788-93
references.pmid: 12890318
references.citation: J Virol. 2002 Dec;76(24):13097-100
references.pmid: 12438639
references.citation: Virology. 2005 Apr 25;335(1):99-105
references.pmid: 15823609
references.citation: Neurology. 2003 Jul 8;61(1):55-9
references.pmid: 12847156
references.citation: MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002 Sep 6;51(35):790
references.pmid: 12227442
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2003 May 29;348(22):2196-203
references.pmid: 12773646
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2004 Aug;10(8):1405-11
references.pmid: 15496241
references.citation: Arch Virol Suppl. 2004;(18):221-30
references.pmid: 15119777
references.citation: J Virol. 2005 Jun;79(12):7300-10
references.pmid: 15919884
references.citation: Lancet Neurol. 2007 Feb;6(2):171-81
references.pmid: 17239804
references.citation: Nat Med. 2005 May;11(5):522-30
references.pmid: 15852016
references.citation: Lancet. 2001 Jul 28;358(9278):261-4
references.pmid: 11498211
references.citation: Vet Res. 2012 Mar 01;43:16
references.pmid: 22380523
references.citation: Vaccine. 2005 May 31;23(29):3808-13
references.pmid: 15893618
references.citation: MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002 Oct 4;51(39):877-8
references.pmid: 12375687
references.citation: Vaccine. 2012 Oct 19;30(47):6656-64
references.pmid: 22959989
references.citation: Parasitol Res. 2008 Dec;103 Suppl 1:S45-53
references.pmid: 19030885
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2004 Jan;10(1):82-6
references.pmid: 15078601
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Jun 21;102(25):8871-4
references.pmid: 15951417
references.citation: Ophthalmology. 2004 Nov;111(11):2065-70
references.pmid: 15522373
references.citation: Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2002;267:195-221
references.pmid: 12082990
references.citation: Neurology. 2000 Jul 12;55(1):144-6
references.pmid: 10891928
references.citation: Vaccine. 2007 Nov 28;25(49):8338-45
references.pmid: 17977629
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2007 Dec 15;196(12):1732-40
references.pmid: 18190252
references.citation: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001 Dec;951:338-9
references.pmid: 11797793
references.citation: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001 Dec;951:1-12
references.pmid: 11797767
references.citation: J Virol. 2000 Sep;74(17):8094-101
references.pmid: 10933719
references.citation: Hum Pathol. 2000 May;31(5):527-31
references.pmid: 10836291