title: Lead, mercury and cadmium in umbilical cord blood and its association with parental epidemiological variables and birth factors.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In Spain, few studies have evaluated prenatal exposure to heavy metals. The objective of this study was to describe lead, mercury and cadmium concentrations in blood from a sample of newborn-mother-father trios, as well as to investigate the association between metals in cord blood and parental variables. We also explored the relationship between cord blood metal concentrations and child characteristics at birth.
  
  
  METHODS
  Metal correlations among family members were assessed using Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient. Linear regression was used to explore the association between parental variables and log-transformed cord blood lead and cord blood mercury concentrations. In the case of cadmium, tobit regression was used due to the existence of samples below the detection limit. The association between cord blood metal concentrations and child characteristics at birth was evaluated using linear regression.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Geometric means for lead, mercury and cadmium were 14.09 μg/L, 6.72 μg/L and 0.27 μg/L in newborns; 19.80 μg/L, 3.90 μg/L and 0.53 μg/L in pregnant women; and 33.00 μg/L, 5.38 μg/L and 0.49 μg/L in men. Positive correlations were found between metal concentrations among members of the trio. Lead and cadmium concentrations were 15% and 22% higher in newborns from mothers who smoked during pregnancy, while mercury concentrations were 25% higher in newborns from mothers with greater fish intake. Cord-blood lead levels showed seasonal periodicity, with lower concentrations observed in winter. Cord blood cadmium concentrations over 0.29 μg/L were associated with lower 1-minute and 5-minute Apgar scores.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results reinforce the need to establish biomonitoring programs in Spain, and provide support for tobacco smoke and fish consumption as important preventable sources of heavy metal exposure in newborns. Additionally, our findings support the hypothesis that cadmium exposure might be deleterious to fetal development.
authors.affiliation: Environmental and Cancer Epidemiology Unit, National Centre for Epidemiology, Carlos III Institute of Health (Instituto de Salud Carlos III - ISCIII), Madrid, Spain. esthergge@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Esther
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: García-Esquinas
authors.forename: Beatriz
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Pérez-Gómez
authors.forename: Pablo
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Fernández-Navarro
authors.forename: Mario Antonio
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Fernández
authors.forename: Concha
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: de Paz
authors.forename: Ana María
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Pérez-Meixeira
authors.forename: Elisa
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Gil
authors.forename: Andrés
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Iriso
authors.forename: Juan Carlos
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Sanz
authors.forename: Jenaro
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Astray
authors.forename: Margot
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Cisneros
authors.forename: Amparo
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: de Santos
authors.forename: Ángel
authors.initials: Á
authors.lastname: Asensio
authors.forename: José Miguel
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: García-Sagredo
authors.forename: José Frutos
authors.initials: JF
authors.lastname: García
authors.forename: Jesús
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Vioque
authors.forename: Gonzalo
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: López-Abente
authors.forename: Marina
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Pollán
authors.forename: María José
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: González
authors.forename: Mercedes
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Martínez
authors.forename: Nuria
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Aragonés
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D002104:Cadmium / Q000097:blood; D015331:Cohort Studies; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000009:adverse effects*; D005260:Female; D005312:Fetal Blood / Q000737:chemistry*; D047109:Fetal Development / Q000502:physiology; D005865:Gestational Age; D006801:Humans; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007854:Lead / Q000097:blood; D016014:Linear Models; D008297:Male; D018811:Maternal Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects; D008431:Maternal-Fetal Exchange; D008628:Mercury / Q000097:blood; D019216:Metals, Heavy / Q000097:blood*; D015999:Multivariate Analysis; D020380:Needs Assessment; D018812:Paternal Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects; D010865:Pilot Projects; D011247:Pregnancy; D011256:Pregnancy Outcome; D047928:Premature Birth; D013030:Spain; D014505:Urban Population
chemical_list: D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D019216:Metals, Heavy; D002104:Cadmium; D007854:Lead; D008628:Mercury
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