title: Estimating the passage of minutes: deviant oscillatory frontal activity in medicated and unmedicated ADHD.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common and extensively treated psychiatric disorder in children, which often persists into adulthood. The core diagnostic symptoms include inappropriate levels of hyperactivity, impulsivity, and/or pervasive inattention. Another crucial aspect of the disorder involves aberrations in temporal perception, which have been well documented in behavioral studies and, recently, have been the focus of neuroimaging studies. These functional magnetic resonance imaging studies have shown reduced activation in anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortices in ADHD using a time-interval discrimination task, whereby participants distinguish intervals differing by only hundreds of milliseconds.
  
  
  METHODS
  We used magnetoencephalography (MEG) to evaluate the cortical network serving temporal perception during a continuous, long-duration (in minutes) time estimation experiment. Briefly, medicated and unmedicated persons with ADHD, and a control group responded each time they estimated 60 s had elapsed for an undisclosed amount of time in two separate MEG sessions. All MEG data were transformed into regional source activity, and subjected to spectral analyses to derive amplitude estimates of gamma-band activity.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Compared to controls, unmedicated patients were less accurate time estimators and had weaker gamma activity in the anterior cingulate, supplementary motor area, and left prefrontal cortex. After medication, these patients exhibited small but significant increases in gamma across these same neural regions and significant improvements in time estimation accuracy, which correlated with the gamma activity increases.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We found deficient gamma activity in brain areas known to be crucial for timing functions, which may underlie the day-to-day abnormalities in time perception that are common in ADHD.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Neuroscience.
authors.forename: Tony W
authors.initials: TW
authors.lastname: Wilson
authors.forename: Elizabeth
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Heinrichs-Graham
authors.forename: Matthew L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: White
authors.forename: Nichole L
authors.initials: NL
authors.lastname: Knott
authors.forename: Martin W
authors.initials: MW
authors.lastname: Wetzel
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000661:Amphetamine / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000150:complications / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000473:pathology; D001931:Brain Mapping; D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D016503:Drug Delivery Systems; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D005625:Frontal Lobe / Q000503:physiopathology*; D006801:Humans; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D015225:Magnetoencephalography; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D010468:Perceptual Disorders / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000209:etiology; D013997:Time Factors; D013998:Time Perception / Q000502:physiology*
chemical_list: D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants; D000661:Amphetamine
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