title: Satiety and energy intake after single and repeated exposure to gel-forming dietary fiber: post-ingestive effects.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Viscous or gel-forming dietary fibers can increase satiety by a more firm texture and increased eating time. Effects of viscous or gel-forming fibers on satiety by post-ingestive mechanisms such as gastric emptying, hormonal signals, nutrient absorption or fermentation are unclear. Moreover, it is unclear whether the effects persist after repeated exposure.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To investigate satiety and energy intake after single and repeated exposure to gelled fiber by post-ingestive mechanisms.
  
  
  METHODS
  In a two-arm crossover design, 32 subjects (24 female subjects, 21±2 y, BMI 21.8±1.9 kg m(-2)) consumed test foods once daily for 15 consecutive days, with 2 weeks of washout. Test foods were isocaloric (0.5 MJ, 200 g) with either 10 g gel-forming pectin or 3 g gelatin and 2 g starch, matched for texture and eating time. Hourly satiety ratings, ad libitum energy intake and body weight were measured on days 1 (single exposure) and 15 (repeated exposure). In addition, hourly breath hydrogen, fasting glucose, insulin, leptin and short-chain fatty acids were measured.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Subjects rated hunger, desire to eat and prospective intake about 2% lower (P<0.015) and fullness higher (+1.4%; P=0.041) when they received pectin compared with control. This difference was similar after single and repeated exposure (P>0.64). After receiving pectin, energy intake was lower (-5.6%, P=0.012) and breath hydrogen was elevated (+12.6%, P=0.008) after single exposure, but not after repeated exposure. Fasting glucose concentrations were higher both after single and repeated exposure to pectin (+2.1%, P=0.019). Body weight and concentrations of insulin, leptin and short-chain fatty acids did not change during the study.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Gelled pectin can increase satiety and reduce energy intake by post-ingestive mechanisms. Although the effects were small, the effects on satiety were consistent over time, whereas the effects on energy intake reduction were not.
authors.affiliation: Division of Human Nutrition, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: A J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Wanders
authors.affiliation: Division of Human Nutrition, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Mars
authors.affiliation: Division of Human Nutrition, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: K J
authors.initials: KJ
authors.lastname: Borgonjen-van den Berg
authors.affiliation: Division of Human Nutrition, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: de Graaf
authors.affiliation: Division of Human Nutrition, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: E J M
authors.initials: EJ
authors.lastname: Feskens
mesh_terms: D000284:Administration, Oral; D000328:Adult; D001786:Blood Glucose; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D004043:Dietary Fiber / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D004311:Double-Blind Method; D004435:Eating; D002149:Energy Intake / Q000502:physiology*; D005215:Fasting; D005260:Female; D005685:Galactans / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D005746:Gastric Emptying / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D006815:Hunger / Q000502:physiology; D007328:Insulin; D020738:Leptin; D008297:Male; D008351:Mannans / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D010368:Pectins / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D053149:Plant Gums / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D012527:Satiation / Q000502:physiology*
chemical_list: D001786:Blood Glucose; D004043:Dietary Fiber; D005685:Galactans; D007328:Insulin; D020738:Leptin; D008351:Mannans; D053149:Plant Gums; D010368:Pectins; C007894:guar gum
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