title: Calibration of clinical prediction rules does not just assess bias.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Calibration is often thought to assess the bias of a clinical prediction rule. In particular, if the rule is based on a linear logistic model, it is often assumed that an overestimation of all coefficients results in a calibration slope less than 1 and an underestimation in a slope larger than 1.
  
  
  METHODS
  We investigate the relation of the bias and the residual variation of clinical prediction rules with the typical behavior of calibration plots and calibration slopes, using some artificial examples.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Calibration is not only sensitive to the bias of the clinical prediction rule but also to the residual variation. In some circumstances, the effects may cancel out, resulting in a misleading perfect calibration.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Poor calibration is a clear indication of limited usefulness of a clinical prediction rule. However, a perfect calibration should be interpreted with care as this may happen even for a biased prediction rule.
authors.affiliation: Clinical Epidemiology, Institute of Medical Biometry and Medical Informatics, Freiburg University Medical Center, Freiburg, Germany. Electronic address: wv@imbi.uni-freiburg.de.
authors.forename: Werner
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Vach
mesh_terms: D015982:Bias; D002138:Calibration / Q000592:standards*; D003661:Decision Support Techniques; D006801:Humans; D015233:Models, Statistical
keywords: Bias; Calibration; External validation; Prognosis; Prognostic model; Residual variation