title: A re-examination and re-evaluation of salamander orbital glands.
abstract: The amphibian integument contains numerous multicellular glands. Although two of these, the nasolabial and orbital glands and the associated nasolacrimal duct (NLD), have historically received considerable attention, interpretation of the original observations can be problematic in the context of current literature. Salamanders, in particular, are frequently regarded as at least indicative of aspects of the morphology of the common ancestor to all extant tetrapods; hence, an understanding of these glands in salamanders might prove to be informative about their evolution. For this study, the orbitonasal region of salamanders from three families was histologically examined. Three themes emerged: (1) examination of the effect of phylogeny on the nasolabial gland and NLD revealed a combination of features that may be unique to plethodontid salamanders, and may be correlated to their nose-tapping behavior by which substances are moved into the vomeronasal organ; (2) ecology appears to impact the relative development of the orbital glands, but not necessarily the nasolabial gland, with smaller glands being present in the aquatic species; (3) the nomenclature of the salamander orbital gland remains problematic, especially in light of comparative studies, as several alternate possibilities are viable. From this nomenclatural conundrum, however, it could be concluded that there may be a global pattern in the location of tetrapod orbital gland development. Molecular questions in terms of ontogeny and genetic homology affect the nature of the debate on orbital gland nomenclature. These observations suggest that rather than reflecting an ancestral condition, salamanders may instead represent a case of specialized, convergent evolution.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, Slippery Rock University, Slippery Rock, Pennsylvania.
authors.forename: Susan J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Rehorek
authors.forename: Alix E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Grand-Pierre
authors.forename: Joshua R
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Cummings
authors.forename: Bridgette
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Jewell
authors.forename: Julieanne
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Constantine
authors.forename: W Jaap
authors.initials: WJ
authors.lastname: Hillenius
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005075:Biological Evolution; D004777:Environment; D005260:Female; D006243:Harderian Gland / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D008297:Male; D060052:Nasolabial Fold / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D009301:Nasolacrimal Duct / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D009656:North America; D009915:Orbit / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D010802:Phylogeny; D009626:Terminology as Topic; D014562:Caudata / Q000033:anatomy & histology*
keywords: Harderian gland; homology; nasolabial gland; nasolacrimal duct; salamanders