title: Post-processing of polymer foam tissue scaffolds with high power ultrasound: a route to increased pore interconnectivity, pore size and fluid transport.
abstract: The aim of this work is to demonstrate that the structural and fluidic properties of polymer foam tissue scaffolds, post-fabrication but prior to the introduction of cells, can be engineered via exposure to high power ultrasound. Our analysis is supported by measurements of fluid uptake during insonification and imaging of the scaffold microstructure via X-ray computed tomography, scanning electron microscopy and acoustic microscopy. The ultrasonic treatment is performed with a frequency of 30 kHz, average intensities up to 80,000 Wm(-2) and exposure times up to 20 h. The treatment is found to increase the mean pore size by over 10%. More striking is the improvement in fluid uptake: for scaffolds with only 40% water uptake via standard immersion techniques, we can routinely achieve full saturation of the scaffold over approximately one hour of exposure. These desirable modifications occur with negligible loss of scaffold integrity and mass, and are optimized when the ultrasound treatment is coupled to a pre-wetting stage with ethanol. Our findings suggest that high power ultrasound is highly targeted towards flow obstructions in the scaffold architecture, thereby providing an efficient means to promote pore interconnectivity and fluid transport in thick foam tissue scaffolds.
authors.affiliation: School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
authors.forename: N J
authors.initials: NJ
authors.lastname: Watson
authors.forename: R K
authors.initials: RK
authors.lastname: Johal
authors.forename: Z
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Glover
authors.forename: Y
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Reinwald
authors.forename: L J
authors.initials: LJ
authors.lastname: White
authors.forename: A M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Ghaemmaghami
authors.forename: S P
authors.initials: SP
authors.lastname: Morgan
authors.forename: F R A J
authors.initials: FR
authors.lastname: Rose
authors.forename: M J W
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Povey
authors.forename: N G
authors.initials: NG
authors.lastname: Parker
mesh_terms: D001672:Biocompatible Materials / Q000737:chemistry*; D000431:Ethanol / Q000737:chemistry; D019344:Lactic Acid / Q000737:chemistry; D033401:Microscopy, Acoustic; D008855:Microscopy, Electron, Scanning; D011091:Polyesters; D011108:Polymers / Q000737:chemistry*; D016062:Porosity; D013010:Sonication
chemical_list: D001672:Biocompatible Materials; D011091:Polyesters; D011108:Polymers; D019344:Lactic Acid; D000431:Ethanol; C033616:poly(lactide)
keywords: Acoustics; Cavitation; Interconnectivity; PLA; Scaffolds; Ultrasound