title: Different trajectories of adolescent alcohol use: testing gene-environment interactions.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Transitions into heavy alcohol use often already take place during adolescence and are likely to be both genetically and environmentally determined. Therefore, in a 6-wave longitudinal study, we examined the effects of DRD2 Taq1A and OPRM1 A118G genotypes and the interaction with parental rule-setting on different groups of adolescent drinkers.
  
  
  METHODS
  Growth mixture modeling resulted in 3 distinct groups of adolescent drinkers: light drinkers (n = 346), moderate drinkers (n = 178), and heavy drinkers (n = 72).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Multinomial regression showed that moderate drinkers carried the OPRM1 G allele and received lower levels of parental rule-setting significantly more often than the light drinking group. No other significant main effects of DRD2, OPRM1, and rule-setting were found. The interaction between OPRM1 genotype and parental rule-setting significantly distinguished the heavy drinkers from the light (p < 0.001) and moderate groups (p = 0.055): Particularly, the alcohol use of OPRM1 G allele carriers was affected by parental rule-setting, while AA genotype carriers remained largely unaffected by parental rules.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Findings showed that different trajectories of adolescent drinking are preceded by a gene-parenting interaction. These results concur with Belsky's theory of plasticity (2009), as well as with Shanahan and Hofer's typology of a controlling and restricting gene-environment interaction (2005).
authors.affiliation: Freelance researcher at Zwaluwstyle , Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Eindhoven University of Technology , Eindhoven, the Netherlands.
authors.forename: Carmen S
authors.initials: CS
authors.lastname: van der Zwaluw
authors.forename: Roy
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Otten
authors.forename: Marloes
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kleinjan
authors.forename: Rutger C M E
authors.initials: RC
authors.lastname: Engels
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000428:Alcohol Drinking / Q000235:genetics* / Q000523:psychology; D032763:Behavior Control; D005260:Female; D059647:Gene-Environment Interaction; D006801:Humans; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D016487:Parenting; D017448:Receptors, Dopamine D2 / Q000235:genetics*; D017450:Receptors, Opioid, mu / Q000235:genetics*; D012044:Regression Analysis
chemical_list: C581293:DRD2 protein, human; C485764:OPRM1 protein, human; D017448:Receptors, Dopamine D2; D017450:Receptors, Opioid, mu
keywords: Adolescence; Alcohol; Development; Gene; Parenting