title: Cutaneous manifestations of antiphospholipid syndrome: a review of the clinical features, diagnosis and management.
abstract: Antiphospholipid syndrome is a relatively recent systemic autoimmune disorder defined by thrombotic events and/or obstetric complications in the presence of persistent elevated antiphospholipid antibodies. It\'s characterized by a wide spectrum of clinical presentations and virtually any organ system or tissue may be affected by the consequences of vascular occlusion. Diagnosis is sometimes difficult and although classification criteria have been published and revised there remain ongoing issues regarding nomenclature, expanding clinical features, laboratory tests and management and much still has to be done. Cutaneous manifestations are common and frequently the first sign of the disease. Although extremely diverse it\'s important to know which dermatological findings should prompt consideration of antiphospholipid syndrome and the appropriate management for those patients. Much has been debated about when to consider antiphospholipid syndrome and consensus still does not exist, however in spite of being a diagnostic challenge clinicians should know when to look for antiphospholipid antibodies since an early diagnosis is important to prevent further and serious complications. In this article we focus on the cutaneous features that should raise suspicion on the presence of antiphospholipid syndrome and on the complex management of such patients. Many other dermatological signs related to this syndrome have been described in the literature but only occasionally and without consistency or statistic impact and therefore will not be considered here.
authors.forename: Teresa
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Pinto-Almeida
authors.forename: Mónica
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Caetano
authors.forename: Madalena
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Sanches
authors.forename: Manuela
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Selores
mesh_terms: D016736:Antiphospholipid Syndrome / Q000150:complications* / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000188:drug therapy; D006801:Humans; D012871:Skin Diseases / Q000209:etiology*