title: Update on mucormycosis pathogenesis.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Mucormycosis is an increasingly common fungal infection with unacceptably high mortality. The recent sequencing genome projects of Mucorales and the development of gene manipulation have enabled significant advances in understanding the pathogenesis of mucormycosis. Therefore, we review the pathogenesis of mucormycosis and highlight potential development of novel diagnostic and therapeutic modalities against this lethal disease.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Much of the work has been focused on the role of iron uptake in the virulence of Mucorales. Additionally, host receptors and fungal ligands involved in the process of tissue invasion as well as sporangiospore size and sex loci and their contribution to virulence of Mucorales are discussed. Finally, the role of innate and adaptive immunity in protection against Mucorales and new evidence about drug-induced apoptosis in these fungi are discussed.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Recent discoveries introduce several potentially novel diagnostic and therapeutic modalities, which are likely to improve management and outcome for mucormycosis. Future preclinical and clinical research is warranted to develop these diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.
authors.affiliation: aDivision of Infectious Diseases, Harbor-University of California Los Angeles Medical Center bSt. John's Cardiovascular Research Center, Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance cDavid Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California dDepartment of Infectious Diseases, Infection Control and Employee Health, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA.
authors.forename: Ashraf S
authors.initials: AS
authors.lastname: Ibrahim
authors.forename: Dimitrios P
authors.initials: DP
authors.lastname: Kontoyiannis
mesh_terms: D000935:Antifungal Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use; D001393:Azoles / Q000627:therapeutic use; D054884:Host-Pathogen Interactions / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D016867:Immunocompromised Host; D007501:Iron / Q000502:physiology; D009090:Mucorales / Q000235:genetics / Q000472:pathogenicity*; D009091:Mucormycosis / Q000382:microbiology* / Q000628:therapy; D012307:Risk Factors
chemical_list: D000935:Antifungal Agents; D001393:Azoles; D007501:Iron