title: Posttraumatic stress disorder increases sensitivity to long term losses among patients with major depressive disorder.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Decisions under risk and with outcomes that are delayed in time are ubiquitous in real life and can have a significant impact on the health and wealth of the decision-maker. Despite its potential relevance for real-world choices, the degree of aberrant risky and intertemporal decision-making in patients suffering from major depressive disorder (MDD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has received little attention to date.
  
  
  METHODS
  We used a case-control design to compare decision-making in healthy control subjects (N=16) versus untreated depressed subjects in a current major depressive episode (N=20). In order to examine how major depressive disorder (MDD) may impact decision-making, subjects made decisions over (1) risky outcomes and (2) delayed outcomes in the domain of gains and losses using choice paradigms from neuroeconomics. In a pre-planned analysis, depressed subjects were subdivided into those with primary PTSD along with comorbid MDD (MDD+PTSD) versus those with primary MDD without PTSD (MDD-only). Choice behavior was modeled via a standard econometric model of intertemporal choice, a quasi-hyperbolic temporal discounting function, which was estimated for each subject group separately.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Under conditions of potential gain, depressed subjects demonstrated greater discounting for gains across all time frames compared to controls. In the realm of losses, both subgroups of depressed subjects discounted more steeply than controls for short time frames. However, for delayed losses ranging from >1-10 years, MDD+PTSD subjects showed shallower discounting rates relative to MDD-only subjects, who continued to discount future losses steeply. Risk attitudes did not contribute to differences in intertemporal choice.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Depressed patients make choices that minimize current pain and maximize current reward, despite severe later consequences or lost opportunities. Anxiety associated with PTSD may serve as a partially protective factor in decision-making about long-term potential losses compared to MDD patients without PTSD.
authors.affiliation: Department of Economics, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Jan B
authors.initials: JB
authors.lastname: Engelmann
authors.forename: Britta
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Maciuba
authors.forename: Christopher
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Vaughan
authors.forename: Martin P
authors.initials: MP
authors.lastname: Paulus
authors.forename: Boadie W
authors.initials: BW
authors.lastname: Dunlop
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D002755:Choice Behavior; D003865:Major Depressive Disorder / Q000150:complications* / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D013313:Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic / Q000150:complications* / Q000523:psychology*; D055815:Young Adult