title: Evaluation and management of pulmonary nodules: state-of-the-art and future perspectives.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The imaging evaluation of pulmonary nodules, often incidentally detected on imaging examinations performed for other clinical reasons, is a frequently encountered clinical circumstance. With advances in imaging modalities, both the detection and characterization of pulmonary nodules continue to evolve and improve.
  
  
  METHODS
  This article will review the imaging modalities used to detect and diagnose benign and malignant pulmonary nodules, with a focus on computed tomography (CT), which continues to be the mainstay for evaluation. The authors discuss recent advances in the lung nodule management, and an algorithm for the management of indeterminate pulmonary nodules.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There are set of criteria that define a benign nodule, the most important of which are the lack of temporal change for 2 years or more, and certain benign imaging criteria, including specific patterns of calcification or the presence of fat. Although some indeterminate pulmonary nodules are immediately actionable, generally those approaching 1 cm or larger in diameter, at which size the diagnostic accuracy of tools such as positron emission tomography (PET)/CT, single photon emission CT (SPECT) and biopsy techniques are sufficient to warrant their use. The majority of indeterminate pulmonary nodules are under 1 cm, for which serial CT examinations through at least 2 years for solid nodules and 3 years for ground-glass nodules, are used to demonstrate either benign biologic behavior or otherwise. The management of incidental pulmonary nodules involves a multidisciplinary approach in which radiology plays a pivotal role. Newer imaging and postprocessing techniques have made this a more accurate technique eliminating ambiguity and unnecessary follow-up.
authors.affiliation: University of Michigan Health System, Division of Cardiothoracic Radiology, Department of Radiology , Ann Arbor, MI , USA ellakaz@med.umich.edu.
authors.forename: Mohamed
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Sayyouh
authors.forename: Dharshan R
authors.initials: DR
authors.lastname: Vummidi
authors.forename: Ella A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Kazerooni
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000378:metabolism; D006801:Humans; D007090:Image Interpretation, Computer-Assisted / Q000379:methods; D008175:Lung Neoplasms / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging / Q000379:methods; D049268:Positron-Emission Tomography / Q000379:methods; D011859:Radiography; D003074:Solitary Pulmonary Nodule / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D014055:Tomography, Emission-Computed / Q000379:methods*; D015899:Tomography, Emission-Computed, Single-Photon / Q000379:methods
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers