title: Evidence of effectiveness of health care professionals using handheld computers: a scoping review of systematic reviews.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Handheld computers and mobile devices provide instant access to vast amounts and types of useful information for health care professionals. Their reduced size and increased processing speed has led to rapid adoption in health care. Thus, it is important to identify whether handheld computers are actually effective in clinical practice.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  A scoping review of systematic reviews was designed to provide a quick overview of the documented evidence of effectiveness for health care professionals using handheld computers in their clinical work.
  
  
  METHODS
  A detailed search, sensitive for systematic reviews was applied for Cochrane, Medline, EMBASE, PsycINFO, Allied and Complementary Medicine Database (AMED), Global Health, and Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) databases. All outcomes that demonstrated effectiveness in clinical practice were included. Classroom learning and patient use of handheld computers were excluded. Quality was assessed using the Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews (AMSTAR) tool. A previously published conceptual framework was used as the basis for dual data extraction. Reported outcomes were summarized according to the primary function of the handheld computer.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Five systematic reviews met the inclusion and quality criteria. Together, they reviewed 138 unique primary studies. Most reviewed descriptive intervention studies, where physicians, pharmacists, or medical students used personal digital assistants. Effectiveness was demonstrated across four distinct functions of handheld computers: patient documentation, patient care, information seeking, and professional work patterns. Within each of these functions, a range of positive outcomes were reported using both objective and self-report measures. The use of handheld computers improved patient documentation through more complete recording, fewer documentation errors, and increased efficiency. Handheld computers provided easy access to clinical decision support systems and patient management systems, which improved decision making for patient care. Handheld computers saved time and gave earlier access to new information. There were also reports that handheld computers enhanced work patterns and efficiency.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This scoping review summarizes the secondary evidence for effectiveness of handheld computers and mhealth. It provides a snapshot of effective use by health care professionals across four key functions. We identified evidence to suggest that handheld computers provide easy and timely access to information and enable accurate and complete documentation. Further, they can give health care professionals instant access to evidence-based decision support and patient management systems to improve clinical decision making. Finally, there is evidence that handheld computers allow health professionals to be more efficient in their work practices. It is anticipated that this evidence will guide clinicians and managers in implementing handheld computers in clinical practice and in designing future research.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Evidence Based Medicine, Department of Primary Care Health Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom. sharon.mickan@phc.ox.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Sharon
authors.identifier: 0000-0002-5690-1997
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Mickan
authors.forename: Julie K
authors.initials: JK
authors.lastname: Tilson
authors.forename: Helen
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Atherton
authors.forename: Nia Wyn
authors.identifier: 0000-0002-1142-6440
authors.initials: NW
authors.lastname: Roberts
authors.forename: Carl
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Heneghan
mesh_terms: D034201:Computers, Handheld; D006282:Health Personnel; D015397:Program Evaluation; D000078202:Systematic Reviews as Topic
keywords: PDA; clinical practice; delivery of health care; diffusion of innovation; documentation; evidence synthesis; evidence-based practice; handheld computers; health technology adoption; information seeking behavior; mhealth; mobile devices; systematic review