title: Attentional and executive functions are differentially affected by post-traumatic stress disorder and trauma.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Among the neurocognitive impairments observed in patients with Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), attentional and executive dysfunctions appear to correlate with negative effects on education, work, daily life activities, and social relations, as well as the re-experiencing, avoidance, and hyperarousal symptoms of PTSD. However, there is no consensus regarding which aspects of attentional and executive functions are impaired in PTSD patients.
  
  
  METHODS
  Attentional and executive functions were assessed using the digit span (WAIS-III) and spatial span (WMS-III) tests under forward and backward recall conditions, the Stroop Test, and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Our sample was composed of victims of urban violence who developed PTSD (PTSD+) (n = 81), victims of urban violence who did not develop PTSD (PTSD-) (n = 70), and healthy controls not exposed to trauma (HC) (n = 50).
  
  
  RESULTS
  The PTSD+ group had poorer performance on the spatial span forward subtest (p = 0.023; eta(2) = 0.038) and poorer execution time (p = 0.023; eta(2) = 0.042) and accuracy (p = 0.019; eta(2) = 0.044) on the Stroop Test compared to HC.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These data suggest that there are few differences between the PTSD+ and HC groups, which are restricted to less complex measures of attentional and executive functional processes (short term capacity, selective attention, processing speed, and inhibitory control) and are related to visual stimuli. Therefore, cognitive impairments directly correlated with the manifestation of PTSD.
authors.affiliation: LiNC - Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Neurociências Clínicas, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Brazil; PROVE - Programa de Atendimento e Pesquisa em Violência, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Brazil. Electronic address: mkflaks@usp.br.
authors.forename: Mariana K
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Flaks
authors.forename: Stella M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Malta
authors.forename: Priscila P
authors.initials: PP
authors.lastname: Almeida
authors.forename: Orlando F A
authors.initials: OF
authors.lastname: Bueno
authors.forename: Mariana C
authors.initials: MC
authors.lastname: Pupo
authors.forename: Sérgio B
authors.initials: SB
authors.lastname: Andreoli
authors.forename: Marcelo F
authors.initials: MF
authors.lastname: Mello
authors.forename: Acioly L T
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Lacerda
authors.forename: Jair J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Mari
authors.forename: Rodrigo A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Bressan
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000209:etiology*; D003072:Cognition Disorders / Q000209:etiology*; D056344:Executive Function / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D011569:Psychiatric Status Rating Scales; D013313:Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic / Q000150:complications*; D014947:Wounds and Injuries / Q000150:complications*
keywords: Cognition; Executive functions; Neuropsychology; Post-traumatic stress disorder; Trauma