title: Standard methods for fungal brood disease research.
abstract: Chalkbrood and stonebrood are two fungal diseases associated with honey bee brood. Chalkbrood, caused byAscosphaera apis, is a common and widespread disease that can result in severe reduction of emerging worker bees and thus overall colony productivity. Stonebrood is caused byAspergillusspp. that are rarely observed, so the impact on colony health is not very well understood. A major concern with the presence ofAspergillusin honey bees is the production of airborne conidia, which can lead to allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, pulmonary aspergilloma, or even invasive aspergillosis in lung tissues upon inhalation by humans. In the current chapter we describe the honey bee disease symptoms of these fungal pathogens. In addition, we provide research methodologies and protocols for isolating and culturing,in vivoandin vitroassays that are commonly used to study these host pathogen interactions. We give guidelines on the preferred methods used in current research and the application of molecular techniques. We have added photographs, drawings and illustrations to assist bee-extension personnel and bee scientists in the control of these two diseases.
authors.affiliation: Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1817 Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
authors.forename: Annette Bruun
authors.initials: AB
authors.lastname: Jensen
authors.forename: Kathrine
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Aronstein
authors.forename: José Manuel
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Flores
authors.forename: Svjetlana
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Vojvodic
authors.forename: María Alejandra
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Palacio
authors.forename: Marla
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Spivak
keywords: Ascosphaera; Ascosphaerales; Aspergillus; BEEBOOK; COLOSS; chalkbrood; diagnostics; honey bee; methods; recommendations; stonebrood