title: Symptoms of alcohol dependence and smoking initiation and persistence: a longitudinal study among US adults.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  A large number of adults report symptoms of, but do not meet diagnostic criteria for, an alcohol use disorder. Yet, little is known about the relationship between symptoms of alcohol use disorders and the initiation and persistence of smoking. This study prospectively examines the relationship between having 1-2 symptoms of alcohol dependence (without abuse) and smoking initiation and persistence as well as nicotine dependence over a 3-year period among adults in the United States.
  
  
  METHODS
  Data were drawn from Wave 1 (2001-2002) and Wave 2 (2004-2005) of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Relationships between Wave 1 symptoms of alcohol dependence, alcohol abuse, and alcohol dependence and initiation and persistence of cigarette smoking and nicotine dependence at Wave 2 were examined using logistic regression analyses. Analyses were adjusted for demographics, mood and anxiety disorders.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Symptoms of alcohol dependence were associated with smoking initiation at Wave 2. There was no association between symptoms of alcohol dependence and smoking persistence. Symptoms of alcohol dependence predicted incident and persistent nicotine dependence. Findings persisted after adjusting for demographic characteristics and mood/anxiety disorders.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Even 1-2 symptoms of alcohol dependence are associated with increased vulnerability to smoking initiation and onset and persistence of nicotine dependence at a similar strength as alcohol use disorders. Efforts at smoking cessation must address problematic alcohol use, even at the subclinical level, in order to improve efficacy.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Queens College and The Graduate Center, City University of New York (CUNY), 65-30 Kissena Boulevard, Flushing, NY 11367, USA; Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA. Electronic address: renee.goodwin@qc.cuny.edu.
authors.forename: Renee D
authors.initials: RD
authors.lastname: Goodwin
authors.forename: June H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Kim
authors.forename: Andrea H
authors.initials: AH
authors.lastname: Weinberger
authors.forename: Farah
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Taha
authors.forename: Sandro
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Galea
authors.forename: Silvia S
authors.initials: SS
authors.lastname: Martins
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000367:Age Factors; D000368:Aged; D000428:Alcohol Drinking / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology; D000437:Alcoholism / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology*; D001008:Anxiety Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology; D039721:Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; D004522:Educational Status; D005006:Ethnicity; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007182:Income; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D019964:Mood Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012737:Sex Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology*; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: Alcohol dependence; Nicotine dependence; Smoking initiation; Smoking persistence; Tobacco