Associations between physical and cognitive doping--a cross-sectional study in 2.997 triathletes.
OBJECTIVE
This study assessed, for the first time, prevalence estimates for physical and cognitive doping within a single collective of athletes using the randomized response technique (RRT). Furthermore, associations between the use of legal and freely available substances to improve physical and cognitive performance (enhancement) and illicit or banned substances to improve physical and cognitive performance (doping) were examined.


METHODS
An anonymous questionnaire using the unrelated question RRT was used to survey 2,997 recreational triathletes in three sports events (Frankfurt, Regensburg, and Wiesbaden) in Germany. Prior to the survey, statistical power analyses were performed to determine sample size. Logistic regression was used to predict physical and cognitive enhancement and the bootstrap method was used to evaluate differences between the estimated prevalences of physical and cognitive doping.


RESULTS
2,987 questionnaires were returned (99.7%). 12-month prevalences for physical and cognitive doping were 13.0% and 15.1%, respectively. The prevalence estimate for physical doping was significantly higher in athletes who also used physical enhancers, as well as in athletes who took part in the European Championship in Frankfurt compared to those who did not. The prevalence estimate for cognitive doping was significantly higher in athletes who also used physical and cognitive enhancers. Moreover, the use of physical and cognitive enhancers were significantly associated and also the use of physical and cognitive doping.


CONCLUSIONS
The use of substances to improve physical and cognitive performance was associated on both levels of legality (enhancement vs. doping) suggesting that athletes do not use substances for a specific goal but may have a general propensity to enhance. This finding is important for understanding why people use such substances. Consequently, more effective prevention programs against substance abuse and doping could be developed.
Department of Sports Medicine, Rehabilitation and Disease Prevention, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany.
Pavel
P
Dietz
Rolf
R
Ulrich
Robert
R
Dalaker
Heiko
H
Striegel
Andreas G
AG
Franke
Klaus
K
Lieb
Perikles
P
Simon
D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D056352:Athletes; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004300:Doping in Sports / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D018697:Nootropic Agents / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D058573:Performance-Enhancing Substances / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D015995:Prevalence; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology*; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D055815:Young Adult
D018697:Nootropic Agents; D058573:Performance-Enhancing Substances