Human exposure to endotoxins and fecal indicators originating from water features.
Exposure to contaminated aerosols and water originating from water features may pose public health risks. Endotoxins in air and water and fecal bacteria in water of water features were measured as markers for exposure to microbial cell debris and enteric pathogens, respectively. Information was collected about wind direction, wind force, distance to the water feature, the height of the water feature and the tangibility of water spray. The mean concentration of endotoxins in air nearby and in water of 31 water features was 10 endotoxin units (EU)/m(3) (Geometric Mean (GM), range 0-85.5 EU/m(3) air) and 773 EU/mL (GM, range 9-18,170 EU/mL water), respectively. Such mean concentrations may be associated with respiratory health effects. The water quality of 26 of 88 water features was poor when compared to requirements for recreational water in the Bathing Water Directive 2006/7/EC. Concentrations greater than 1000 colony forming units (cfu) Escherichia coli per 100 mL and greater than 400 cfu intestinal enterococci per 100 mL increase the probability of acquiring gastrointestinal health complaints. Regression analyses showed that the endotoxin concentration in air was significantly influenced by the concentration of endotoxin in water, the distance to the water feature and the tangibility of water spray. Exposure to air and water near water features was shown to lead to exposure to endotoxins and fecal bacteria. The potential health risks resulting from such exposure to water features may be estimated by a quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA), however, such QMRA would require quantitative data on pathogen concentrations, exposure volumes and dose-response relationships. The present study provides estimates for aerosolisation ratios that can be used as input for QMRA to quantify exposure and to determine infection risks from exposure to water features.
Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands. Electronic address: h.deman@uu.nl.
H
H
de Man
Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
D D J
DD
Heederik
Grontmij Water & Energy, De Bilt, The Netherlands.
E J T M
EJ
Leenen
Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
A M
AM
de Roda Husman
Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
J J G
JJ
Spithoven
Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
F
F
van Knapen
D000336:Aerosols / Q000032:analysis; D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000032:analysis*; D002947:Cities; D004731:Endotoxins / Q000032:analysis*; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D004926:Escherichia coli / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D005618:Fresh Water / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000382:microbiology; D006801:Humans; D008033:Limulus Test; D016015:Logistic Models; D009426:Netherlands; D012044:Regression Analysis; D018570:Risk Assessment; D014873:Water Pollutants / Q000032:analysis*
D000336:Aerosols; D000393:Air Pollutants; D004731:Endotoxins; D014873:Water Pollutants
Endotoxin; Exposure; Fecal indicator bacteria; Health risk; Interactive water fountain