title: Permits and effluent charges in the water pollution control policies of France, West Germany, and the Netherlands.
abstract: In this article the water pollution control policies of these countries and their effects on emitters are analyzed. In the Netherlands, local water control boards levy pollution charges on both direct and indirect emitters. The charges are based upon measured emissions and actual treatment costs and they vary among the boards. Discharges into surface waters are by permission only. West German law sets nationally uniform rates only for direct emitters and some pollutants, irrespective of treatment costs. The States (Länder), however, may make indirect emitters liable to pay as well. In France, river basin agencies charge emitters and grant discounts where abatement facilities have been installed. Further policy instruments are tax cuts, subsidies, and standards set on local and national levels. France, in this complex policy, also uses contrats de branche where government and industries agree by contract on pollution abatement. Evidence shows that all these policies have reduced water pollution. As emissions decrease, problems of overcapacity might occur where collective water treatment plants have been installed already. Moreover, investment in additive abatement technology may inhibit the introduction of low-waste, integrated technologies. Yet the development of the latter, though expensive in the short run, should enable industry to meet more stringent standards in the future.
authors.affiliation: Forschungsschwerpunkt Umweltpolitik, Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung, Berlin, Germany.
authors.forename: J C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Bongaerts
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Kraemer