title: Early-life exposure to a herbicide has enduring effects on pathogen-induced mortality.
abstract: Exposure to stressors at formative stages in the development of wildlife and humans can have enduring effects on health. Understanding which, when and how stressors cause enduring health effects is crucial because these stressors might then be avoided or mitigated during formative stages to prevent lasting increases in disease susceptibility. Nevertheless, the impact of early-life exposure to stressors on the ability of hosts to resist and tolerate infections has yet to be thoroughly investigated. Here, we show that early-life, 6-day exposure to the herbicide atrazine (mean ± s.e.: 65.9±3.48 µg l(-1)) increased frog mortality 46 days after atrazine exposure (post-metamorphosis), but only when frogs were challenged with a chytrid fungus implicated in global amphibian declines. Previous atrazine exposure did not affect resistance of infection (fungal load). Rather, early-life exposure to atrazine altered growth and development, which resulted in exposure to chytrid at more susceptible developmental stages and sizes, and reduced tolerance of infection, elevating mortality risk at an equivalent fungal burden to frogs unexposed to atrazine. Moreover, there was no evidence of recovery from atrazine exposure. Hence, reducing early-life exposure of amphibians to atrazine could reduce lasting increases in the risk of mortality from a disease associated with worldwide amphibian declines. More generally, these findings highlight that a better understanding of how stressors cause enduring effects on disease susceptibility could facilitate disease prevention in wildlife and humans, an approach that is often more cost-effective and efficient than reactive medicine.
authors.forename: Jason R
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Rohr
authors.forename: Thomas R
authors.initials: TR
authors.lastname: Raffel
authors.forename: Neal T
authors.initials: NT
authors.lastname: Halstead
authors.forename: Taegan A
authors.initials: TA
authors.lastname: McMahon
authors.forename: Steve A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Johnson
authors.forename: Raoul K
authors.initials: RK
authors.lastname: Boughton
authors.forename: Lynn B
authors.initials: LB
authors.lastname: Martin
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001001:Anura / Q000254:growth & development / Q000378:metabolism / Q000382:microbiology*; D001280:Atrazine / Q000633:toxicity*; D049628:Body Size / Q000187:drug effects; D008411:Chytridiomycota / Q000502:physiology*; D005431:Florida; D006540:Herbicides / Q000633:toxicity*; D007814:Larva / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000254:growth & development / Q000378:metabolism / Q000382:microbiology*; D008136:Longevity / Q000187:drug effects; D013997:Time Factors
chemical_list: D006540:Herbicides; D001280:Atrazine