title: Mechanisms of toxic action of Ag, ZnO and CuO nanoparticles to selected ecotoxicological test organisms and mammalian cells in vitro: a comparative review.
abstract: Silver, ZnO and CuO nanoparticles (NPs) are increasingly used as biocides. There is however increasing evidence of their threat to "non-target" organisms. In such a context, the understanding of the toxicity mechanisms is crucial for both the design of more efficient nano-antimicrobials, i.e. for "toxic by design" and at the same time for the design of nanomaterials that are biologically and/or environmentally benign throughout their life-cycle (safe by design). This review provides a comprehensive and critical literature overview on Ag, ZnO and CuO NPs' toxicity mechanisms on the basis of various environmentally relevant test species and mammalian cells in vitro. In addition, factors modifying the toxic effect of nanoparticles, e.g. impact of the test media, are discussed. Literature analysis revealed three major phenomena driving the toxicity of these nanoparticles: (i) dissolution of nanoparticles, (ii) organism-dependent cellular uptake of NPs and (iii) induction of oxidative stress and consequent cellular damages. The emerging information on quantitative structure-activity relationship modeling of nanomaterials' toxic effects and the challenges of extrapolation of laboratory results to the environment are also addressed.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics , Tallinn , Estonia .
authors.forename: Angela
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Ivask
authors.forename: Katre
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Juganson
authors.forename: Olesja
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Bondarenko
authors.forename: Monika
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Mortimer
authors.forename: Villem
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Aruoja
authors.forename: Kaja
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Kasemets
authors.forename: Irina
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Blinova
authors.forename: Margit
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Heinlaan
authors.forename: Vera
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Slaveykova
authors.forename: Anne
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Kahru
mesh_terms: D003300:Copper / Q000737:chemistry*; D066298:In Vitro Techniques; D053768:Metal Nanoparticles / Q000633:toxicity*; D012834:Silver / Q000737:chemistry*; D015034:Zinc Oxide / Q000737:chemistry*
chemical_list: D012834:Silver; D003300:Copper; D015034:Zinc Oxide; C000520:cuprous oxide
keywords: Antimicrobials; QNARs; metal ions; oxidative stress; uptake