title: Factors affecting the use of impedance spectroscopy in the characterisation of the freezing stage of the lyophilisation process: the impact of liquid fill height in relation to electrode geometry.
abstract: This study aims to investigate the application of impedance spectroscopy using fixed electrode geometries on a standard glass vial in the characterisation of the freezing process of solutions at different fill liquid volumes. Impedance spectra (between 10 and 10(6) Hz) were recorded every 3 min, during the freezing cycle on a solution of 30 mg/mL sucrose contained within 10 mL glass vials having an electrode system (two thin copper foils: w, 18 mm; h, 5 mm) affixed to the external surface of the vial. A fill factor (Φ) was defined in terms of the relative height of the solution volume to the height of the electrodes from the base of the vial. Solution volumes of 1.5 to 5 mL (corresponding to Φ= 0.5-1.6) were investigated to establish the applicability of having a fixed electrode geometry for a range of solution volumes. A linear relationship between the time duration of the ice formation/solidification phase and the fill factor suggests that fixed electrode geometries may be used to investigate a range of fill volumes. The benefit of this approach is that it does not invade the solution and hence records the freezing process without providing additional nucleation sites and in a manner which is representative of the entire fill volume.
authors.affiliation: Leicester school of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK, gsmith02@dmu.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Geoff
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Smith
authors.forename: Muhammad Sohail
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Arshad
authors.forename: Eugene
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Polygalov
authors.forename: Irina
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Ermolina
mesh_terms: D058266:Dielectric Spectroscopy / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D004566:Electrodes; D005612:Freeze Drying; D005615:Freezing