title: Immobilizing live Escherichia coli for AFM studies of surface dynamics.
abstract: Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a probe-based technique that permits high resolution imaging of live bacterial cells. However, stably immobilizing cells to withstand the probe-based lateral forces remains an obstacle in AFM mediated studies, especially those of live, rod shaped bacteria in nutrient media. Consequently, AFM has been under-utilized in the research of bacterial surface dynamics. The aim of the current study was to immobilize a less adherent Escherichia coli strain in a method that both facilitates AFM imaging in nutrient broth and preserves overall cell viability. Immobilization reagents and buffers were systematically evaluated and the cell membrane integrity was monitored in all sample preparations. As expected, the biocompatible gelatin coated surfaces facilitated stable cell attachment in lower ionic strength buffers, yet poorly immobilized cells in higher ionic strength buffers. In comparison, poly-l-lysine surfaces bound cells in both low and high ionic strength buffers. The benefit of the poly-l-lysine binding capacity was offset by the compromised membrane integrity exhibited by cells on poly-l-lysine surfaces. However, the addition of divalent cations and glucose to the immobilization buffer was found to mitigate this unfavorable effect. Ultimately, immobilization of E. coli cells on poly-l-lysine surfaces in a lower ionic strength buffer supplemented with Mg(2+) and Ca(2+) was determined to provide optimal cell attachment without compromising the overall cell viability. Cells immobilized in this method were stably imaged in media through multiple division cycles. Furthermore, permeability assays indicated that E. coli cells recover from the hypoosmotic stress caused by immobilization in low ionic strength buffers. Taken together, this data suggests that stable immobilization of viable cells on poly-l-lysine surfaces can be accomplished in lower ionic strength buffers that are supplemented with divalent cations for membrane stabilization while minimizing binding interference. The data also indicates that monitoring cell viability as a function of sample preparation is important and should be an integral part of the work flow for determining immobilization parameters. A method for immobilizing a less adherent E. coli mutant for AFM imaging in nutrient broth is presented here in addition to a proposed work flow for developing and optimizing immobilization strategies.
authors.affiliation: Eastern Virginia Medical School Department of Surgery, 700 West Olney Road, Lewis Hall 3078, Norfolk, VA 23507, USA.
authors.forename: N E
authors.initials: NE
authors.lastname: Lonergan
authors.affiliation: Eastern Virginia Medical School Department of Surgery, 700 West Olney Road, Lewis Hall 3078, Norfolk, VA 23507, USA.
authors.forename: L D
authors.initials: LD
authors.lastname: Britt
authors.affiliation: Eastern Virginia Medical School Department of Surgery, 700 West Olney Road, Lewis Hall 3078, Norfolk, VA 23507, USA. Electronic address: sullivcj@evms.edu.
authors.forename: C J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Sullivan
mesh_terms: D002462:Cell Membrane / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D018914:Cells, Immobilized; D055598:Chemical Phenomena; D004926:Escherichia coli / Q000254:growth & development / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D050296:Microbial Viability; D018625:Microscopy, Atomic Force / Q000379:methods*; D013210:Staphylococcus / Q000254:growth & development / Q000648:ultrastructure; D013499:Surface Properties
keywords: Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM); Bacteria; Immobilization; Live cell imaging; Outer membrane vesicle (OMV); PLL