title: Atomic Force Microscopy and pharmacology: from microbiology to cancerology.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) has been extensively used to study biological samples. Researchers take advantage of its ability to image living samples to increase our fundamental knowledge (biophysical properties/biochemical behavior) on living cell surface properties, at the nano-scale.
  
  
  METHODS
  AFM, in the imaging modes, can probe cells morphological modifications induced by drugs. In the force spectroscopy mode, it is possible to follow the nanomechanical properties of a cell and to probe the mechanical modifications induced by drugs. AFM can be used to map single molecule distribution at the cell surface. We will focus on a collection of results aiming at evaluating the nano-scale effects of drugs, by AFM. Studies on yeast, bacteria and mammal cells will illustrate our discussion. Especially, we will show how AFM can help in getting a better understanding of drug mechanism of action.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This review demonstrates that AFM is a versatile tool, useful in pharmacology. In microbiology, it has been used to study the drugs fighting Candida albicans or Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The major conclusions are a better understanding of the microbes' cell wall and of the drugs mechanism of action. In cancerology, AFM has been used to explore the effects of cytotoxic drugs or as an innovative diagnostic technology. AFM has provided original results on cultured cells, cells extracted from patient and directly on patient biopsies.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This review enhances the interest of AFM technologies for pharmacology. The applications reviewed range from microbiology to cancerology.
authors.affiliation: CNRS, LAAS, 7 avenue du colonel Roche, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 4, France; Université de Toulouse, UPS, INSA, INP, ISAE, UT1, UTM, LAAS, ITAV, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 4, France.
authors.forename: Flavien
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Pillet
authors.affiliation: CNRS, IPBS-UMR 5089, BP64182, 205 route de Narbonne, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 4, France; Université de Toulouse, UPS, INSA, INP, ISAE, UT1, UTM, LAAS, ITAV, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 4, France.
authors.forename: Louise
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Chopinet
authors.affiliation: CNRS, LAAS, 7 avenue du colonel Roche, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 4, France; Université de Toulouse, UPS, INSA, INP, ISAE, UT1, UTM, LAAS, ITAV, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 4, France; CNRS, UMR 7565, SRSMC, Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France; Université de Lorraine, UMR 7565, Faculté de Pharmacie, Nancy, France.
authors.forename: Cécile
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Formosa
authors.affiliation: CNRS, LAAS, 7 avenue du colonel Roche, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 4, France; Université de Toulouse, UPS, INSA, INP, ISAE, UT1, UTM, LAAS, ITAV, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 4, France; CNRS; ITAV-USR 3505; F31106 Toulouse, France. Electronic address: edague@laas.fr.
authors.forename: Etienne
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Dague
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001419:Bacteria / Q000187:drug effects; D001432:Bacteriology; D002473:Cell Wall / Q000648:ultrastructure; D005658:Fungi / Q000166:cytology; D006801:Humans; D018625:Microscopy, Atomic Force; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000473:pathology*; D010600:Pharmacology
keywords: Atomic Force Microscopy; Bacterium; Cancer; Pharmacology; Yeast