title: Assessment of bone fragility with clinical imaging modalities.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Osteoporotic fractures are a vital public health concern and have created a great economic burden to our society. Therefore, early diagnosis of patients with high risk of osteoporotic fractures is essential. The current gold standard for assessment of fracture risk is the measurement of bone mineral density using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. However, such techniques are not very effective in the diagnosis of patients with osteopaenia. Doctors are usually unable to make an informed decision regarding the treatment plan of these patients. In addition to bone mineral density, advanced imaging modalities have been explored in recent years to assess bone quality in other contributing factors, such as microarchitecture of trabecular bone, mineralisation, microdamage and bone remodelling rates. Currently, the microarchitecture of trabecular bone can be evaluatedin vivoby high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography techniques, which have a resolution of 80 µm. However, such imaging techniques still remain a high-end research tool rather than a diagnostic tool for clinical applications. Thus, the limited accessibility and affordability of high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography have become major concerns for the general public. Alternatively, combining bone mineral density measurements with stochastic assessments of spatial bone mineral density distribution from dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry images may offer an economic and efficient approach to non-invasively evaluate skeletal integrity and identify the at-risk population for osteoporotic fractures. The aim of this critical review is to assess bone fragility with clinical imaging modalities.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  High-resolution quantitative computed tomography imaging technique may provide direct measurements of microarchitectures of trabecular bonein vivo. However, it is an expensive method of imaging modality.
authors.affiliation: Department of Health and Kinesiology, The University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, USA.
authors.forename: Xn
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Dong
authors.forename: X
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Wang