title: Do cadmium, lead, and aluminum in drinking water increase the risk of hip fractures? A NOREPOS study.
abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate relations between cadmium, lead, and aluminum in municipality drinking water and the incidence of hip fractures in the Norwegian population. A trace metals survey in 566 waterworks was linked geographically to hip fractures from hospitals throughout the country (1994-2000). In all those supplied from these waterworks, 5,438 men and 13,629 women aged 50-85 years suffered a hip fracture. Poisson regression models were fitted, adjusting for age, region of residence, urbanization, and type of water source as well as other possibly bone-related water quality factors. Effect modification by background variables and interactions between water quality factors were examined (correcting for false discovery rate). Men exposed to a relatively high concentration of cadmium (IRR = 1.10; 95 % CI 1.01, 1.20) had an increased risk of fracture. The association between relatively high lead and hip fracture risk was significant in the oldest age group (66-85 years) for both men (IRR = 1.11; 95 % CI 1.02, 1.21) and women (IRR = 1.10; 95 % CI 1.04, 1.16). Effect modification by degree of urbanization on hip fracture risk in men was also found for all three metals: cadmium, lead, and aluminum. In summary, a relatively high concentration of cadmium, lead, and aluminum measured in drinking water increased the risk of hip fractures, but the associations depended on gender, age, and urbanization degree. This study could help in elucidating the complex effects on bone health by risk factors found in the environment.
authors.affiliation: Division of Epidemiology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, P.O. Box 4404 Nydalen, 0403, Oslo, Norway, Cecilie.Dahl@fhi.no.
authors.forename: Cecilie
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Dahl
authors.forename: Anne Johanne
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Søgaard
authors.forename: Grethe S
authors.initials: GS
authors.lastname: Tell
authors.forename: Trond Peder
authors.initials: TP
authors.lastname: Flaten
authors.forename: Dag
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Hongve
authors.forename: Tone Kristin
authors.initials: TK
authors.lastname: Omsland
authors.forename: Kristin
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Holvik
authors.forename: Haakon E
authors.initials: HE
authors.lastname: Meyer
authors.forename: Geir
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Aamodt
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000535:Aluminum / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D002104:Cadmium / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D060766:Drinking Water / Q000737:chemistry*; D005260:Female; D006620:Hip Fractures / Q000139:chemically induced*; D006801:Humans; D007854:Lead / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D012307:Risk Factors
chemical_list: D060766:Drinking Water; D002104:Cadmium; D007854:Lead; D000535:Aluminum