title: Characterization and prediction of rate-dependent flexibility in lumbar spine biomechanics at room and body temperature.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The soft tissues of the spine exhibit sensitivity to strain-rate and temperature, yet current knowledge of spine biomechanics is derived from cadaveric testing conducted at room temperature at very slow, quasi-static rates.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The primary objective of this study was to characterize the change in segmental flexibility of cadaveric lumbar spine segments with respect to multiple loading rates within the range of physiologic motion by using specimens at body or room temperature. The secondary objective was to develop a predictive model of spine flexibility across the voluntary range of loading rates.
  
  
  METHODS
  This in vitro study examines rate- and temperature-dependent viscoelasticity of the human lumbar cadaveric spine.
  
  
  METHODS
  Repeated flexibility tests were performed on 21 lumbar function spinal units (FSUs) in flexion-extension with the use of 11 distinct voluntary loading rates at body or room temperature. Furthermore, six lumbar FSUs were loaded in axial rotation, flexion-extension, and lateral bending at both body and room temperature via a stepwise, quasi-static loading protocol. All FSUs were also loaded using a control loading test with a continuous-speed loading-rate of 1-deg/sec. The viscoelastic torque-rotation response for each spinal segment was recorded. A predictive model was developed to accurately estimate spine segment flexibility at any voluntary loading rate based on measured flexibility at a single loading rate.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Stepwise loading exhibited the greatest segmental range of motion (ROM) in all loading directions. As loading rate increased, segmental ROM decreased, whereas segmental stiffness and hysteresis both increased; however, the neutral zone remained constant. Continuous-speed tests showed that segmental stiffness and hysteresis are dependent variables to ROM at voluntary loading rates in flexion-extension. To predict the torque-rotation response at different loading rates, the model requires knowledge of the segmental flexibility at a single rate and specified temperature, and a scaling parameter. A Bland-Altman analysis showed high coefficients of determination for the predictive model.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The present work demonstrates significant changes in spine segment flexibility as a result of loading rate and testing temperature. Loading rate effects can be accounted for using the predictive model, which accurately estimated ROM, neutral zone, stiffness, and hysteresis within the range of voluntary motion.
authors.affiliation: 435 CTB, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA.
authors.forename: Dean K
authors.initials: DK
authors.lastname: Stolworthy
authors.affiliation: 435 CTB, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA.
authors.forename: Shannon A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Zirbel
authors.affiliation: 435 CTB, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA.
authors.forename: Larry L
authors.initials: LL
authors.lastname: Howell
authors.affiliation: 435 CTB, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA.
authors.forename: Marina
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Samuels
authors.affiliation: 435 CTB, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA. Electronic address: abowden@byu.edu.
authors.forename: Anton E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Bowden
mesh_terms: D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D001831:Body Temperature; D002102:Cadaver; D006801:Humans; D016015:Logistic Models; D008159:Lumbar Vertebrae / Q000502:physiology*; D018583:Pliability / Q000502:physiology*; D011237:Predictive Value of Tests; D016059:Range of Motion, Articular / Q000502:physiology; D013314:Stress, Mechanical; D013696:Temperature; D019415:Torque
keywords: Biomechanics; Flexibility; Loading Rate; Spine; Temperature; Viscoelasticity