title: Simulation in cardiothoracic surgical training: where do we stand?
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Simulation may reduce the risks associated with the complex operations of cardiothoracic surgery and help create a more efficient, thorough, and uniform curriculum for cardiothoracic surgery fellowship. Here, we review the current status of simulation in cardiothoracic surgical training and provide an overview of all simulation models applicable to cardiothoracic surgery that have been published to date.
  
  
  METHODS
  We completed a comprehensive search of all publications pertaining to simulation of cardiothoracic surgical procedures by using PubMed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Numerous cardiothoracic surgical simulators at various stages of development, assessment, and commercial manufacturing have been published to date. There is currently a predominance of models simulating coronary artery bypass grafting and bronchoscopy and a relative paucity of simulators of open pulmonary and esophageal procedures. Despite the wide range of simulators available, few models have been formally assessed for validity and educational value.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Surgical simulation is becoming an increasingly important educational tool in training cardiothoracic surgeons. Our next steps forward will be to develop an objective, standardized way to assess surgical simulation training compared with the current apprenticeship model.
authors: Division of Thoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Md.
authors: Kanika
authors: K
authors: Trehan
authors: Division of Thoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Md.
authors: Clinton D
authors: CD
authors: Kemp
authors: Division of Thoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Md. Electronic address: syang@jhmi.edu.
authors: Stephen C
authors: SC
authors: Yang
mesh_terms: D006348:Cardiac Surgical Procedures / Q000193:education*; D002983:Clinical Competence; D003198:Computer Simulation; D003194:Computer-Assisted Instruction; D003479:Curriculum; D004503:Education, Medical, Graduate / Q000379:methods*; D006801:Humans; D007396:Internship and Residency; D059032:Learning Curve; D008955:Models, Cardiovascular; D013663:Teaching / Q000379:methods*; D019616:Thoracic Surgical Procedures / Q000193:education*; D014656:Vascular Surgical Procedures / Q000193:education*
keywords: 2; CAB; CPB; CT; HPS; OR; SBM; VATS; VRS; VSC; Visioning Simulation Conference; cardiopulmonary bypass; cardiothoracic; coronary artery bypass; human performance simulator; operating room; simple bench model; video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery; virtual reality simulator