title: Increased cortisol levels in hair of recent Ecstasy/MDMA users.
abstract: Previous research has revealed an acute 8-fold increase in salivary cortisol following self-administrated Ecstasy/MDMA in dance clubbers. It is currently not known to what extent repeated usage impacts upon activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis over a more prolonged period of time. This study investigated the integrated cortisol levels in 3-month hair samples from recent Ecstasy/MDMA users and non-user controls. One hundred and one unpaid participants (53 males, 48 females; mean age 21.75 years) completed the University of East London recreational drug use questionnaire, modified to cover the past 3-months of usage. They comprised 32 light recent Ecstasy/MDMA users (1-4 times in last 3 months), 23 recent heavy MDMA users (+5 times in last 3 months), and 54 non-user controls. Volunteers provided 3 cm hair samples for cortisol analysis. Hair cortisol levels were observed to be significantly higher in recent heavy MDMA users (mean = 55.0 ± 80.1 pg/mg), compared to recent light MDMA users (19.4 ± 16.0 pg/mg; p=0.015), and to non-users (13.8 ± 6.1 pg/mg; p<0.001). Hence the regular use of Ecstasy/MDMA was associated with almost 4-fold raised hair cortisol levels, in comparison with non-user controls. The present results are consistent with the bio-energetic stress model for Ecstasy/MDMA, which predicts that repeated stimulant drug use may increase cortisol production acutely, and result in greater deposits of the hormone in hair. These data may also help explain the neurocognitive, psychiatric, and other psychobiological problems of some abstinent users. Future study design and directions for research concerning the psychoneuroendocrinological impact of MDMA are also discussed.
authors: Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, Wales, UK; Centre for Human Psychopharmacology (CHP), Swinburne University, Australia. Electronic address: a.c.parrott@swansea.ac.uk.
authors: A C
authors: AC
authors: Parrott
authors: Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, Wales, UK.
authors: H R
authors: HR
authors: Sands
authors: Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, Wales, UK.
authors: L
authors: L
authors: Jones
authors: Psychophysiology and Stress Research Group, Westminster University, London, UK.
authors: A
authors: A
authors: Clow
authors: Psychophysiology and Stress Research Group, Westminster University, London, UK.
authors: P
authors: P
authors: Evans
authors: Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, Wales, UK; Centre for Human Psychopharmacology (CHP), Swinburne University, Australia.
authors: L A
authors: LA
authors: Downey
authors: Department of Psychology, Technical University of Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
authors: T
authors: T
authors: Stalder
mesh_terms: D005260:Female; D006197:Hair / Q000737:chemistry*; D006213:Hallucinogens / Q000494:pharmacology*; D006801:Humans; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000032:analysis*; D013287:Illicit Drugs / Q000494:pharmacology*; D007118:Immunoassay; D008163:Luminescent Measurements; D008297:Male; D018817:N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine / Q000494:pharmacology*; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000378:metabolism*; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013997:Time Factors; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D006213:Hallucinogens; D013287:Illicit Drugs; D018817:N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine; D006854:Hydrocortisone
keywords: Cortisol; Ecstasy; HPA axis; MDMA; Neurohormone; Stress