title: Sewage epidemiology and illicit drug research: the development of ethical research guidelines.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To discuss the need to develop ethical guidelines for researchers using sewage epidemiology to monitor drug use in the general population and specific precincts, including prisons, schools and workplaces.
  
  
  METHODS
  Describe current applications of sewage epidemiology, identify potential ethical risks associated with this science, and identify key means by which these risks may be mitigated through proportionate ethical guidance that allows this science to be fully developed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A rapidly advancing field of research is sewage epidemiology (SE) - the analysis of wastewater samples to monitor illicit drug use and other substances. Typically this research involves low ethical risks because individual participants cannot be identified and, consequently, review has been waived by human research ethics committees. In the absence of such oversight, ethical research guidelines are recommended for SE teams, peer reviewers and journal editors; guidelines will assist them to mitigate any risks in general population studies and studies of prisons, schools and workplaces. Potential harms include the stigmatisation of participants and, in the prison setting, austere policy responses to SE data that impact negatively upon inmate-participants. The risk of harm can be managed through research planning, awareness of the socio-political context in which results will be interpreted (or, in the case of media, sensationalised) and careful relations with industry partners. Ethical guidelines should be developed in consultation with SE scholars and be periodically amended. They should include publication processes that safeguard scientific rigour and be promulgated through existing research governance structures.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Guidelines will assist to promote an ethical research culture among SE teams and scholars involved in the publication process and this will work to protect the reputation of the field.
authors: University of Tasmania, Law Faculty, Private Bag 89, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia. Electronic address: Jeremy.prichard@utas.edu.au.
authors: Jeremy
authors: J
authors: Prichard
authors: University of Queensland, UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital Site, Herston, QLD 4029, Australia.
authors: Wayne
authors: W
authors: Hall
authors: University of Amsterdam, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, Postbus 94240, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors: Pim
authors: P
authors: de Voogt
authors: IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Laboratory of Food Toxicology, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy.
authors: Ettore
authors: E
authors: Zuccato
mesh_terms: D026689:Ethical Analysis; D017408:Guidelines as Topic; D006801:Humans; D013287:Illicit Drugs / Q000032:analysis*; D012107:Research Design; D012722:Sewage / Q000737:chemistry; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology*; D062065:Wastewater / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis*
chemical_list: D013287:Illicit Drugs; D012722:Sewage; D062065:Wastewater; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical
keywords: Ethical; Ethics; Sewage epidemiology; Wastewater analysis