title: The development of a dynamic, six-axis spine simulator.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Although a great deal of research has been completed to characterize the stiffness of spinal specimens, there remains a limited understanding of the spine in 6 df and there is a lack of data from dynamic testing in six axes.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  This study details the development and validation of a dynamic six-axis spine simulator.
  
  
  METHODS
  Biomechanical study.
  
  
  METHODS
  A synthetic spinal specimen was used for the purpose of tuning the simulator, completing positional accuracy tests, and measuring frequency response under physiological conditions. The spine simulator was used to complete stiffness matrix tests of an L3-L4 lumbar porcine functional spinal unit. Five testing frequencies were used, ranging from quasistatic (0.00575 Hz) to dynamic (0.5 Hz). Tests were performed without an axial preload and with an axial preload of 500 N.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The validation tests demonstrated that the simulator is capable of producing accurate positioning under loading at frequencies up to 0.5 Hz using both sine and triangle waveforms. The porcine stiffness matrix tests demonstrated that the stiffness matrix is not symmetrical about the principal stiffness diagonal. It was also shown that while an increase in test frequency generally increased the principal stiffness terms, axial preload had a much greater effect.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The spine simulator is capable of characterizing the dynamic biomechanics of the spine in six axes and provides a means to better understand the complex behavior of the spine under physiological conditions.
authors: Centre for Orthopaedic Biomechanics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK. Electronic address: en1tph@bath.ac.uk.
authors: Timothy Patrick
authors: TP
authors: Holsgrove
authors: Centre for Orthopaedic Biomechanics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK.
authors: Sabina
authors: S
authors: Gheduzzi
authors: Centre for Orthopaedic Biomechanics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK.
authors: Harinderjit Singh
authors: HS
authors: Gill
authors: Centre for Orthopaedic Biomechanics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK.
authors: Anthony W
authors: AW
authors: Miles
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D004867:Equipment Design; D008159:Lumbar Vertebrae / Q000502:physiology*; D010827:Physiology / Q000295:instrumentation; D010865:Pilot Projects; D013552:Swine
keywords: Dynamic; In vitro; Matrix; Porcine; Spine biomechanics; Stiffness