title: Detecting small groundwater discharge springs using handheld thermal infrared imagery.
abstract: Ground-based handheld thermal infrared imagery was used for the detection of small-scale groundwater springs at the northwestern beach of Spiekeroog Island (northwest Germany). The surveys and in situ measurements of electric conductivity were carried out from shortly before to shortly after low tide along the low water line. Several brackish groundwater discharge springs with a diameter of 1-2 cm were observed along the beach at a distance of 2-3 m above the low water line. The high fresh water portion in the discharging water derives from the fresh water lens in the center of the island. During cold weather, the springs were identified by a significantly increased temperature (3-5 °C higher) and a lower electric conductivity (<10 mS/cm) in contrast to the surrounding sea water (1-2 °C, >30 mS/cm). During warmer weather conditions, an inverse temperature contrast was observed. The measurements confirm the applicability of thermal imagery for the detection of small-scale groundwater discharge locations as an extension to the established method of aerial thermal scans and prove the existence of submarine groundwater seeps in porous systems. A ground-based handheld thermal infrared imagery survey enables a precise installation of sampling devices as, for example, seepage meters.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Carl-von-Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Ammerländer Heerstraße 11, D-26129 Oldenburg, Germany.
authors.forename: Tania
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Röper
authors.forename: Janek
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Greskowiak
authors.forename: Gudrun
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Massmann
mesh_terms: D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods*; D005618:Fresh Water / Q000737:chemistry; D005858:Germany; D060587:Groundwater; D062312:Islands; D012623:Seawater / Q000737:chemistry*; D013696:Temperature