title: Re-visiting insecticide resistance status in Anopheles gambiae from Côte d'Ivoire: a nation-wide informative survey.
abstract: Insecticide resistance constitutes a major threat that may undermine current gain in malaria control in most endemic countries. National Malaria Control Programmes (NMCPs) need as much information as possible on the resistance status of malaria vectors and underlying mechanisms in order to implement the most relevant and efficient control strategy. Bioassays, biochemical and molecular analysis were performed on An. gambiae collected in six sentinel sites in Côte d'Ivoire. The sites were selected on the basis of their bioclimatic status and agricultural practices. An. gambiae populations across sites showed high levels of resistance to organochloride, pyrethroid and carbamate insecticides. The kdr and ace-1(R) mutations were detected in almost all sentinel sites with mosquitoes on the coastal and cotton growing areas mostly affected by these mutations. At almost all sites, the levels of detoxifying enzymes (mixed-function oxidases (MFOs), non-specific esterases (NSE) and glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs)) in An. gambiae populations were significantly higher than the levels found in the susceptible strain Kisumu. Pre-exposure of mosquitoes to PBO, an inhibitor of MFOs and NSEs, significantly increased mortality rates to pyrethroids and carbamates in mosquitoes but resistance in most cases was not fully synergised by PBO, inferring a residual role of additional mechanisms, including kdr and ace-1 site insensitivity. The large distribution of resistance in Côte d'Ivoire raises an important question of whether to continue to deploy pyrethroid-based long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and insecticide residual spraying (IRS) towards which resistance continues to rise with no guarantee that the level of resistance would not compromise their efficacy. Innovative strategies that combine insecticide and synergists in LLINs or spatially LLIN and an effective non-pyrethroid insecticide for IRS could be in the short term the best practice for the NMCP to manage insecticide resistance in malaria vectors in Côte d'Ivoire and other endemic countries facing resistance.
authors.affiliation: Institut Pierre Richet (IPR), Bouaké, Côte d'Ivoire.
authors.forename: Alphonsine A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Koffi
authors.affiliation: Institut Pierre Richet (IPR), Bouaké, Côte d'Ivoire ; Laboratoire de Zoologie et Biologie Animale, Université Félix Houphouët Boigny, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.
authors.forename: Ludovic P
authors.initials: LP
authors.lastname: Ahoua Alou
authors.affiliation: Institut Pierre Richet (IPR), Bouaké, Côte d'Ivoire.
authors.forename: Jean-Paul K
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Kabran
authors.affiliation: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, United Kingdom ; Centre de Recherche Entomologique de Cotonou (CREC), Cotonou 04, Bénin.
authors.forename: Raphael
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: N'Guessan
authors.affiliation: Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs, Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle (MIVEGEC), UM1-UM2-CNRS 5290 IRD 224, Montpellier, France ; Centre de Recherche Entomologique de Cotonou (CREC), Cotonou 04, Bénin.
authors.forename: Cédric
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Pennetier
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000852:Anopheles / Q000235:genetics*; D007560:Cote d'Ivoire; D003625:Data Collection; D007305:Insecticide Resistance / Q000235:genetics; D007306:Insecticides; D009032:Mosquito Control; D009154:Mutation; D011722:Pyrethrins
chemical_list: D007306:Insecticides; D011722:Pyrethrins