title: Executive functioning shows differential maturation from early to late adolescence: longitudinal findings from a TRAILS study.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Maturation of executive functioning (EF) is topical, especially in relation to adolescence, yet longitudinal research covering early and late adolescence is lacking. This, however, is a prerequisite for drawing conclusions on normal cognitive development, and understanding deviant maturation. The aim of this study is to longitudinally investigate 6 subcomponents of EF in early (mean age 11) and late adolescence (mean age 19) and to investigate the influence of sex and socioeconomic status (SES).
  
  
  METHODS
  We used data of the TRacking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS). A number of 2,217 participants carried out tasks of the Amsterdam Neuropsychological Tasks (ANT), measuring Focused Attention, Inhibition, Sustained Attention, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, and Shift Attention.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Linear growth model with individual varying times of observation showed significant slopes for all 6 measures. Sex differences were found for the majority of the measures, where boys showed more maturation. Maturation was influenced by SES for Sustained Attention and Inhibition.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Results show that significant maturation takes place for all the measured subcomponents over adolescence. Overall, girls show better baseline performance and smaller maturational rates, suggesting more mature skills in early adolescence. Maturation is only influenced by SES for Sustained Attention and Inhibition. Findings underline that for making statements about EF maturation in adolescence, it is essential to look at subcomponents. Furthermore, sex differences are an important factor when investing (ab)normal maturation of EF.
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Social and Behavioral Science.
authors.forename: Sarai R
authors.initials: SR
authors.lastname: Boelema
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Social and Behavioral Science.
authors.forename: Zeena
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Harakeh
authors.affiliation: Interdisciplinary Centre for Psychiatric Epidemiology.
authors.forename: Johan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Ormel
authors.affiliation: Interdisciplinary Centre for Psychiatric Epidemiology.
authors.forename: Catharina A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Hartman
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Social and Behavioral Science.
authors.forename: Wilma A M
authors.initials: WA
authors.lastname: Vollebergh
authors.affiliation: Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University.
authors.forename: Martine J E
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: van Zandvoort
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D041923:Adolescent Development; D002648:Child; D056344:Executive Function; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D012737:Sex Factors; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors