title: Of goals and habits: age-related and individual differences in goal-directed decision-making.
abstract: In this study we investigated age-related and individual differences in habitual (model-free) and goal-directed (model-based) decision-making. Specifically, we were interested in three questions. First, does age affect the balance between model-based and model-free decision mechanisms? Second, are these age-related changes due to age differences in working memory (WM) capacity? Third, can model-based behavior be affected by manipulating the distinctiveness of the reward value of choice options? To answer these questions we used a two-stage Markov decision task in in combination with computational modeling to dissociate model-based and model-free decision mechanisms. To affect model-based behavior in this task we manipulated the distinctiveness of reward probabilities of choice options. The results show age-related deficits in model-based decision-making, which are particularly pronounced if unexpected reward indicates the need for a shift in decision strategy. In this situation younger adults explore the task structure, whereas older adults show perseverative behavior. Consistent with previous findings, these results indicate that older adults have deficits in the representation and updating of expected reward value. We also observed substantial individual differences in model-based behavior. In younger adults high WM capacity is associated with greater model-based behavior and this effect is further elevated when reward probabilities are more distinct. However, in older adults we found no effect of WM capacity. Moreover, age differences in model-based behavior remained statistically significant, even after controlling for WM capacity. Thus, factors other than decline in WM, such as deficits in the in the integration of expected reward value into strategic decisions may contribute to the observed impairments in model-based behavior in older adults.
authors.affiliation: Chair of Lifespan Developmental Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, TU Dresden Dresden, Germany ; Center for Lifespan Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Development Berlin, Germany.
authors.forename: Ben
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Eppinger
authors.affiliation: Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin Berlin, Germany.
authors.forename: Maik
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Walter
authors.affiliation: Center for Lifespan Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Development Berlin, Germany ; Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin Berlin, Germany.
authors.forename: Hauke R
authors.initials: HR
authors.lastname: Heekeren
authors.affiliation: Chair of Lifespan Developmental Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, TU Dresden Dresden, Germany ; Center for Lifespan Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Development Berlin, Germany.
authors.forename: Shu-Chen
authors.initials: SC
authors.lastname: Li
keywords: aging; decision-making and learning; dopamine; goal-directed; habitual