title: Opportunities and limitations of molecular methods for quantifying microbial compliance parameters in EU bathing waters.
abstract: The debate over the suitability of molecular biological methods for the enumeration of regulatory microbial parameters (e.g. Faecal Indicator Organisms [FIOs]) in bathing waters versus the use of traditional culture-based methods is of current interest to regulators and the science community. Culture-based methods require a 24-48hour turn-around time from receipt at the laboratory to reporting, whilst quantitative molecular tools provide a more rapid assay (approximately 2-3h). Traditional culturing methods are therefore often viewed as slow and 'out-dated', although they still deliver an internationally 'accepted' evidence-base. In contrast, molecular tools have the potential for rapid analysis and their operational utility and associated limitations and uncertainties should be assessed in light of their use for regulatory monitoring. Here we report on the recommendations from a series of international workshops, chaired by a UK Working Group (WG) comprised of scientists, regulators, policy makers and other stakeholders, which explored and interrogated both molecular (principally quantitative polymerase chain reaction [qPCR]) and culture-based tools for FIO monitoring under the European Bathing Water Directive. Through detailed analysis of policy implications, regulatory barriers, stakeholder engagement, and the needs of the end-user, the WG identified a series of key concerns that require critical appraisal before a potential shift from culture-based approaches to the employment of molecular biological methods for bathing water regulation could be justified.
authors.affiliation: Biological & Environmental Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK. Electronic address: david.oliver@stir.ac.uk.
authors.forename: David M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Oliver
authors.affiliation: Biological & Environmental Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK.
authors.forename: Melanie
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: van Niekerk
authors.affiliation: Centre for Research into Environment & Health, Aberystwyth University, Wales SA48 8HU, UK.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Kay
authors.affiliation: Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, LA1 4YQ, UK.
authors.forename: A Louise
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Heathwaite
authors.affiliation: National Laboratory Service, Environment Agency, Starcross, Devon EX6 8FD, UK.
authors.forename: Jonathan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Porter
authors.affiliation: European Centre for Environment & Human Health, University of Exeter Medical School, Truro, Cornwall TR1 3HD, UK.
authors.forename: Lora E
authors.initials: LE
authors.lastname: Fleming
authors.affiliation: City of Racine Health Department Laboratory, 730 Washington Avenue, Racine, WI 53403, USA.
authors.forename: Julie L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Kinzelman
authors.affiliation: Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs, Nobel House, London SW1P 3JR, UK.
authors.forename: Elaine
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Connolly
authors.affiliation: Surfers Against Sewage, Wheal Kitty Workshops, St Agnes, Cornwall TR5 0RD, UK.
authors.forename: Andy
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Cummins
authors.affiliation: Scottish Environment Protection Agency, Eurocentral, North Lanarkshire ML1 4WQ, UK.
authors.forename: Calum
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: McPhail
authors.affiliation: Environment Agency, Horizon House, Bristol BS1 5AH, UK.
authors.forename: Amanna
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Rahman
authors.affiliation: UK Water Industry Research Ltd, 1 Queen Anne's Gate, London SW1H 9BT, UK.
authors.forename: Ted
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Thairs
authors.affiliation: Laboratory for Zoonoses & Environmental Microbiology, National Institute for Public Health (RIVM), Centre for Infectious Disease Control, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Ana Maria
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: de Roda Husman
authors.affiliation: Department of Economics, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK.
authors.forename: Nick D
authors.initials: ND
authors.lastname: Hanley
authors.affiliation: Environment Agency, Oving Road, Chichester, West Sussex PO20 2AG, UK.
authors.forename: Ian
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Dunhill
authors.affiliation: European Environment Agency, European Topic Center for Inland, Coastal and Marine Water, Institute for Water of Republic of Slovenia, Slovenia.
authors.forename: Lidija
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Globevnik
authors.affiliation: Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, Tampa, FL 33620, USA.
authors.forename: Valerie J
authors.initials: VJ
authors.lastname: Harwood
authors.affiliation: Rothamsted Research, North Wyke, Okehampton, Devon EX20 2SB, UK.
authors.forename: Chris J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Hodgson
authors.affiliation: Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth Laboratory, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
authors.forename: David N
authors.initials: DN
authors.lastname: Lees
authors.affiliation: HPA Colindale, Health Protection Agency, London, UK.
authors.forename: Gordon L
authors.initials: GL
authors.lastname: Nichols
authors.affiliation: Cranfield Water Science Institute, School of Applied Sciences, Cranfield University, MK43 0AL, UK.
authors.forename: Andreas
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Nocker
authors.affiliation: Laboratory for Zoonoses & Environmental Microbiology, National Institute for Public Health (RIVM), Centre for Infectious Disease Control, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Ciska
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Schets
authors.affiliation: Biological & Environmental Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK.
authors.forename: Richard S
authors.initials: RS
authors.lastname: Quilliam
mesh_terms: D003187:Compliance; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000191:economics / Q000379:methods* / Q000592:standards*; D005821:Genetic Techniques / Q000191:economics / Q000592:standards*; D013550:Swimming; D014871:Water Microbiology / Q000592:standards*; D060753:Water Quality / Q000592:standards*
keywords: EU Bathing Water Directive; Epidemiology; Faecal indicator organism; Microbial pollution; Recreational water; qPCR