title: Cognitive enhancement in Canadian medical students.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Cognitive enhancing agents are substances that may augment functions such as memory, attention, concentration, wakefulness, and intelligence.
  
  
  METHODS
  An anonymous, online survey containing a series of questions on the actual and hypothetical use of cognitive enhancers was sent via email to 647 medical students across all four years in one Canadian MD program.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The response rate was 50% (326/647). Overall, 49 (15%, 95% CI: 11% to 19%) students admitted to non-medical and/or off-label use of one or more pharmaceutical stimulants, of whom 14 (4%, 95% CI: 2% to 6%) had used stimulants within the last year. Senior medical students reported recent use more often than junior students (8% vs. 2%, P = 0.04). Class seniority and male gender were both associated with positive attitudes towards use of these agents; favorable attitudes were associated with recent use of pharmaceutical stimulant and high-caffeine products.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A substantial proportion of Canadian medical students have engaged at some point in non-medical and/or off-label use of stimulants for purposes of cognitive enhancement. Male students and those in upper years of the MD program were more likely to have used pharmaceutical stimulants in the last year, and have favorable attitudes concerning use of cognitive-enhancing agents.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. paul.kudlow@gmail.com
authors.forename: Paul A
authors.initials: PA
authors.lastname: Kudlow
authors.affiliation: Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
authors.forename: Karline Treurnicht
authors.initials: KT
authors.lastname: Naylor
authors.affiliation: Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at the University of Western Ontario, London, Canada.
authors.forename: Bin
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Xie
authors.affiliation: University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
authors.forename: Roger S
authors.initials: RS
authors.lastname: McIntyre
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D002170:Canada / Q000453:epidemiology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D018697:Nootropic Agents / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D013337:Students, Medical / Q000523:psychology*; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology*
chemical_list: D018697:Nootropic Agents