title: Factors increasing snake detection and perceived threat in captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta).
abstract: The primary predators of primates are all ambush hunters, and yet felids, raptors, and snakes differ in aspects of their ecology that affect the evasive strategies of their primate prey. Felids and raptors can traverse long distances quickly, thus the urgency of threat they present increases as they come closer in proximity to primates. In contrast, snakes do not move rapidly over long distances, and so primates may be reasonably safe even at close distances provided snakes can be detected and monitored. We investigated the ability of captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) to detect snakes at distances ranging from 15 to 1.5 m. We also examined variation in intensity of perceived threat by applying a Hidden Markov Model to infer changes in underlying state from observable behaviors, that is, increased attention and mobbing. We found that the macaques often failed to detect snake models but that closer proximity improved snake detection, which is necessary before threat can be perceived. We also found that having only one individual in fairly close proximity (≤ 7.5 m) was sufficient to alert the rest of the group and so the chances of detection did not increase with increasing group size. Finally, we found that when the snakes were perceived, they did not elicit greater intensity of response with closer proximity. These results provide evidence that the threat from snakes is greatest when they are in proximity to primates but are unseen. When snakes are seen, however, distance appears not to affect primates' perceived risk, in contrast to their perceived risk from raptors and felids.
authors.affiliation: Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis, California.
authors.forename: Stephanie F
authors.initials: SF
authors.lastname: Etting
authors.forename: Lynne A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Isbell
authors.forename: Mark N
authors.initials: MN
authors.lastname: Grote
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001143:Arousal / Q000502:physiology; D001522:Behavior, Animal; D008253:Macaca mulatta / Q000502:physiology*; D008297:Male; D010465:Perception; D011235:Predatory Behavior; D012911:Snakes; D014828:Vocalization, Animal
keywords: Hidden Markov Model; anti-predator behavior; mobbing; primates; snakes